Issues In The Study Of Personality PDF

Issue #3. Past vs Present TOP – Is personality fixed by early events in our lives, or can it be affected by LESSON 1...

Issue #3. Past vs Present TOP – Is personality fixed by early events in our lives, or can it be affected by LESSON 1 experiences in adulthood? ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY Past APA defines Personality as The enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise – Historical determinism: The view that personality is basically fixed in the a person’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, drives, values, self- early years of life and subject to little change thereafter. concept, abilities, and emotional patterns. Present I. Fundamental Questions about Human Nature – Later experiences may act to reinforce or modify early personality How do we explain the origins of our traits and behavior? patterns. Issue #1 - Nature vs. Nature Hence, the issue is whether personality becomes fixed somehow during the first five Are we influenced more by heredity or by our environment? or six years of life (Freud); Or whether personality is continuously modified by what we experience later in life (Adler, Fromm et al.) Nature Issue #4. Free will vs. Determinism – Inherited attributes – Genetic endowment  Inherited predispositions – Are we beings with free will that allows us to make the choices for us to take, so that we are in control of our fate? Nature Nurture – Or are we victims of our past experiences, instincts, and the outside forces so that our fate is predetermined by them? – Features of the environment – Upbringing, education/training Issue #5: Optimism vs. Pessimism Recent research on nature-nurture controversy – Are we born good (as our Christian religion teaches us), such that we are hopeful and positive that we can optimize our potentials and become “Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have shown that temperament is better persons? strongly influenced by more than 700 genes modulating associative conditioning by – Or are we born basically with animal instincts (evil or animalistic, molecular processes for synaptic plasticity and long-term learning and memory… pleasure-seeking, etc.), and these push us to behave instinctually or The identified genes were enriched in pathways activated by behavioral instinctively most especially during crises or stress. conditioning in animals.” (Temperament is the disposition of the person to learn how to behave, react emotionally and form attachments automatically by Are we basically good or basically evil? associative conditioning.) – Some theorists believe that human nature is basically good and that the (Cloninger et al. (2019). The complex genetics and biology of human temperament: experiences that man encounters may help sustain/nurture that a review of traditional concepts in relation to molecular findings. Translational goodness. Thus, whatever faults or negative behaviors come out of him Psychiatry, 9, 2019.) are due to environmental influences. – On the other hand, some other theorists think that man is basically evil, – More than 30 years of gene discovery studies for both monogenic (early- born with animal instincts. It is the training and the nurturance from the onset, severe) and polygenic (common) obesity show that they have family and the society that influences his refinement into an improved, shared genetic and biological underpinnings, pointing to a key role for the civilized and cultured being. brain in the control of body weight. – Specifically, the CNS and neuronal pathways that control hedonic aspects Issue #6. Uniqueness vs. Universality of food intake have emerged as the major drivers of body weight for both forms of obesity. ( Loos & Yeo (2021). The genetics of obesity: from – Is the personality unique or are there reliable clusters of personality types discovery to biology. Nature Reviews Genetics, 23, 20-133, 2022.) among us? – Norwegian twins (N=1516, age 50-65, response rate 71%) responded to a – While we accept the fact that human beings are unique and different personality scale (NEO-PI-R) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). from one another, there have been attempts at grouping people Regression analyses and biometric modeling were used to examine according to similar traits. influences from personality traits and to estimate genetic and – These attempts have led to clusters or classifications of personality, such environmental contributions. Neuroticism and extraversion explained as those made by Jung, Fromm, Cattell, Sheldon to name a few. 24%, and personality facets accounted for 32% of the variance in life II. Areas of theoretical disagreement satisfaction…Heritability of life satisfaction was 0.31 of which 65% was Objective vs. Subjective aspects explained by personality-related genetic influences. The Person vs. the Situation The Idiographic - Nomothetic distinction (Roysamb et al. Genetics, personality and well-being. A twin study of traits, facets and life satisfaction. Scientific Reports, 8, 2018.) 1. Objective vs. Subjective – Is objectivity possible (or even desirable) in studying personality? – “Science is built of facts the way a house is built of bricks; but an accumulation of facts is no more science than a pile of bricks is a house.” Issue #2: Equilibrium or Growth? J.H. Poincare, 1902 Equilibrium – There is no such thing as truth…when a paradigm changes, reality changes.” Thomas Kuhn “…the only truths we can know for certain are – Need for internal balance those we have invented ourselves.” Giovanni Battista Vico (1668- 1744) – Function to satisfy physical needs – How much do you agree that reality changes as paradigms change? The – Keep stress to a minimum; tension-reducing, pleasure-seeking truth about 1+1=2 is not absolute, because Math must be understood as relative to a background system or context. As a matter of truth, in Growth Gestalt Psychology, 1+1 is not 2 but more than 2, because “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Try reflecting on this. – Need to grow, to realize potential – Reach for even higher levels of self-expression 2. Person vs. Situation  – Refers to the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining person’s behavior. – Personality trait psychologists believe that people have consistent personalities that guide their behaviors across situations. Two possible explanations for behavior (Mischel) 1. Behavior is a function of personality traits. B = f(P) The person behaves the way he does because that is his trait, i.e., he is being himself. IV. Criteria for Evaluating Personality Theories 2. Behavior is a function of situational forces. B = f(S) 1. Empirical Validity – the degree to which the theory is supported by evidence The person behaves the way he does because the situation or the derived from observations Some theories do not pass this circumstance provokes him. criterion because of the inadequate amount of evidence that can be taken from very scientific methods like Consider the reasons why these happen: experimentation. 1. A man gives alms to a beggar 2. Parsimony – simplicity; having fewer assumptions and simpler 2. A student cheats explanations; the less wordy, the better Using constructs will lead to parsimony. Compare people’s behavior at sporting events and at funerals. How may 3. Extensiveness the person’s traits be influential to the way one behaves in each?  – refers to the comprehensiveness or breadth of the How may the situation affect the behavior in each type of event? phenomena (Freud’s theory, for example, covers everything about personality, its structure, its development, its defenses, 3. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic the mental states, etc.) 4. Internal Consistency Idiographic – highlights the unique elements of the individual (his uniqueness)  – the degree that its propositions and assumptions are fit Nomothetic – looks into the similarities or commonalities among individuals together in a coherent, larger explanation In Freud’s theory, for example, the “unconscious” is so powerful that it Personality Research can be either idiographic or nomothetic. influences much of man’s actions, according to Freud. – Case studies usually bring out what is unique in the experiences of Motives of certain behaviors can be unconscious. Thus, in people. treating disorders, he believed in unraveling the mystery of – Phenomenological research also attempts to extract common themes the unconscious mind in order to understand the disturbed about a small group of individuals to bring out what is unique in them. behavior of a patient. – Most other researches like surveys look for measures of central 5. Testability tendencies to define the population. – when a theory’s concepts are clearly defined, hypotheses can – Ethnographic studies tend to look for commonalities in a culture or be derived and stated precisely and unambiguously and can cultural group to be able to define the culture. be tested through research. This, again, is true for behaviors that can be observed and tested using scientific procedures. III. Purposes of Theory 6. Usefulness – can lead to important practical applications Theories are said 1. To organize and clarify observations; to be useful if they find application in understanding behavior and in the treatment of psychological disorders. They can also 2. To explain the causes of past events in such a way that future events can be be used as bases for establishing policies that will benefit the predicted from the same causes; human being and the society. 3. To provide a sense of understanding of the subject matter; and 7. Acceptability – degree of it being accepted and taken seriously by the 4. To generate new ideas and research. scientific community. The theories of Freud, Fromm, Jung, etc. may not provide objective evidences and may not even be tested, but they are well accepted and esteemed by the scientific community. Their legacies have lived on. Consider the following frame. You can see a criss-cross of situations and accompanying symptoms or features. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES: PART 1. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYSIS These specific situations and symptoms can be generalized into one theoretical construct, ANXIETY. Thus, by coming out with a construct like ‘anxiety’, we are able FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYSIS WAS THE ORIGINAL PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY AND to explain a lot of similar situations and the accompanying observations. THERAPY – includes all theories that explain the origins of human behavior based on Freud and his followers: Carl Jung (1912), Melanie Klein (1921), Alfred Adler (1927), Anna Freud (1936), and Erik Erikson (1950).  – The approach includes all the theories that view human THE EARLY YEARS functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly the unconscious, and among Born on May 6, 1856 the different structures of the personality. In Freiberg, Moravia (now Czech Republic) At age 4, his family moved to Vienna, Austria THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS Father was strict and authoritarian Mother was protective and loving A. The Importance of the Unconscious Attitude towards father marked by: Hostility, Hatred, Rage The causes of behavior have their origins in the unconscious Towards the mother, Freud “felt a passionate and sexual attachment” mind. (Schultz & Schultz, 2013) Most of the content of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant and could cause feelings of pain, anxiety, or AMONG HIS LIFELONG PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS WERE conflict if it became conscious. An example is Hysteria -- a physical symptom that has no “A man who has been the indisputable favorite of his mother keeps physical cause though experienced just as real – though for life the feeling of a conqueror, that confidence of success that viewed as caused by some underlying unconscious problem. often induces real success” (quoted in Jones, 1953, p.5 High degree of self-confidence B. Importance of early experience An intense ambition to succeed Our behavior as adults, including emotional problems, are Dreams of glory and fame rooted in our childhood experiences. High level of intelligence (which his parents helped foster) Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by conflicts during the psychosexual stages of development. HOW INTELLIGENT FREUD WAS Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious and cause problems, such as mental illness, as adults. Frequently the head of his class C. Psychic determinism Fluent in German and Hebrew, Latin, Greek, French, English, Italian Psychodynamic theory is strongly deterministic as it views and Spanish behavior as entirely caused by unconscious emotional drives Completed medical degree at the University of Vienna over which we have no control. Conducted physiological research on the spinal cord of fish and the Unconscious thoughts and feelings can transfer to the testes of the eel. conscious mind through parapraxes, popularly known as Freudian slips or slips of the tongue. THE EPISODE WITH COCAINE Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight Called it a miracle drug into the unconscious mind and that there are no accidents; In 1884, published an article about its beneficial effects every behavior (including slips of the tongue) is significant Strongly criticized for contributing to the epidemic of cocaine use in and is determined. Europe and USA D. Behavior can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind To correct things, he deleted all references to the substance from Parts of the unconscious mind (id and superego) are in his own biography constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (ego). However, continued to use cocaine till middle age When unconscious conflicts between the id and the superego cannot be resolved by the ego, they create anxiety. To reduce HIS PRIVATE PRACTICE this anxiety, we use defense mechanisms, such as repression. In 1881, practised as clinical neurologist TO BE MENTALLY HEALTHY Trained in hypnosis under Jean Martin Charcot Important writings include Studies on Hysteria (with Breuer) and If the superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis (e.g, Interpretation of Dreams depression). If the id is dominant, the individual might develop a Learned about sexual basis of neurosis psychosis (e.g., schizophrenia). After several years of practice, became convinced that the primary The psychodynamic approach suggests that resolution of the problem cause of all neuroses is sexual conflict. can be achieved by the therapist assisting the client to delve back into their childhood and identify when the problem arose. HIS NEUROTIC EPISODE Hence, the problem can be brought into the conscious where the imbalance can be resolved, returning equanimity among the id, ego, and In his forties, Described his neurotic episode as involving superego. “odd states of mind not intelligible to consciousness – cloudy thoughts and veiled doubts…” METHODOLOGY Was troubled by various physical symptoms, e.g., migraine, urinary problems, and spastic colon; Case studies (Little Hans, Anna O, Wolf Man) Worried about death, and anxious about travel and open Dream analysis spaces Free association Diagnosed his condition as anxiety neurosis and neurasthenia Projective tests (TAT, inkblots) Traced these to accumulation of sexual tension: Clinical interviews In his writings, he proposed: Hypnosis (in 1896, Freud replaced this with free association) Neurasthenia in men due to masturbation CASE STUDIES Anxiety neurosis due to abnormal sexual practices and abstinence Little Hans – case study of a 5 year old boy who had a phobia of horses Led to Freud’s formulation of Freud’s concept of Oedipus and castration “THE MOST IMPORTANT PATIENT FOR ME WAS MY OWN PERSON” (FREUD) complexes Anna O – case history of Bertha Pappenheim (patient of Studied and interpreted his own dreams Joseph Breuer) From such, he realized how much hostility he felt toward his Influenced the ideas of psychodynamic approach father Her treatment led to emphasis on the impact of early traumas and Recalled his childhood longings for his mother subconscious ideas on the conscious mind and gave rise to the use of Even dreamed of a sex wish toward his eldest daughter “talking therapy” and hypnosis. His theory was formulated around his own neurotic conflicts SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939) – His Theory of Psychoanalysis  DEVELOPING HIS THEORY CURRENT OPINIONS ABOUT FREUD’S LIFE AND DEATH INSTINCTS Initially intuitive (from his own experiences) more rational Death drive is incompatible with the sanctity of life, and seems to and empirical (through work with patients) encourage or justify suicide; Published books and articles Presented papers at scientific Freud’s thinking is a product of his times, hence, the concept is meetings Attracted a group of disciples flawed and doesn’t make sense in contemporary life; The life drive is often oversimplified to mean libido, the energy that THE PINNACLE OF SUCCESS -- reached the peak of career between drives sex and creativity. the 1920s and 1930s Drives are abstract and science cannot verify or disprove their existence by any reliable, quantifiable measure. LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 1. Conscious Includes all the sensations and experiences of which we aware at any given moment. Is limited, because only a small portion of our thoughts, sensations and memories exists in conscious awareness at any given time. THE ENDING 2. Unconscious The larger region of the mind that holds our instincts and In 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany and they repressed experiences, desires and conflicts that are not burned Freud’s books. acceptable. In 1938,the Nazis occupied Austria; Freud agreed to Freud considers this the main driving power behind our leave for London only after his daughter Anna was behavior. arrested 3. Preconscious His health deteriorated due to cancer of the mouth Situated between the conscious and the unconscious. Died in 1939 after being administered 3 injections of Storehouse of memories, perceptions and thoughts that we morphine within 24 hours are not aware of at the moment but that we can easily summon into the conscious. RE-VIEWING FREUD’S THEORY AND CONCEPTS Propelling Forces of the Personality RE-VIEWING FREUD’S THEORY AND CONCEPTS: LIFE INSTINCT (EROS) Structure of the Personality drive relating to basic survival (thirst, hunger, pain ID avoidance) pleasure, and reproduction (sexual procreation); The animal, primitive, savage instinct present at birth (Bischof, 1970) The energy created by the life drive is called the Operates according to the pleasure principle. libido. Selfish, and strives for immediate gratification LIBIDO Behaviors commonly associated with this include: “…Part of the id which seeks gratification from purely sexual activities.” love, sharing, and other prosocial actions, even (Bischof, 1970) altruism – behaviors that support individual well- “…the form of psychic energy, manifested by the life instinct, that drives being and harmonious living in a healthy society a person toward pleasurable behaviors and thoughts.” (Schultz & Schultz, 2013) Libido THE EGO part of the id which seeks its gratifications from purely sexual activities (Bischof, 1970) The rational aspect of the personality, responsible for directing and the form of psychic energy that drives a controlling the instincts according to the reality principle person toward pleasurable behaviors and Decides when and how the id can best be satisfied, in accordance with thoughts (Schultz & Schultz, 1998, 2013) the reality Cathexis THE SUPEREGO an investment of psychic energy The moral-ethical aspect of the personality; the internalized parental and (emotional investment) in an object or societal values and standards person, can be positive or negative; a Conscience –consists of the behaviors for which the child has been group of cathected ideas is a complex. punished. Ego Ideal – contains the moral or ideal behaviors one should strive for. DEATH INSTINCT (THANATOS) Primary process thought -- childlike thinking by which the id attempts to Freud postulated that humans are driven toward death and destruction, satisfy the instinctual drives hence, "the aim of all life is death.“ Secondary process thought -- mature thought processes needed to deal Subjugated by the libido and manifested through the drive for rationally with the external world destruction and will to power (as in sadism) When channeled outward, it appears as aggression toward others; when Defenses against anxiety -- strategies the ego uses to defend itself inward, it can result in self-harm or suicide against the anxiety provoked by conflicts of everyday life. -- involve Freud based his concept on clinical observations of people who, after denials or distortions of reality experiencing a traumatic event, would often recreate or revisit it. Example: the soldier returning from the war who revisits the trauma in Erogenous zones – parts of the body which are easily aroused when dreams that repeatedly take him back to combat manipulated or touched. Freud then concluded that people hold an unconscious desire to die, but the life instinct tempers this wish. Jackson’s law –the first things to come into the system are the last to leave.  FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES In defense of some keypoints of Psychoanalysis: STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS - Psychological denial can be defined as the inability to face facts Oral Birth to 1  primary interaction with the world is that are painful or uncomfortable. year through the mouth; - (During the pandemic) psychological denial has become a crisis on  mouth is vital for eating; its own, as it has interfered with public health efforts to contain the  infant derives pleasure from oral spread of COVID 19. stimulation through gratifying activities such - Therapists who persist in their skepticism toward Freudian denial as tasting and sucking; are denying hard evidence and practicing denial themselves.  if this need is not met, the child may Ratner, Austin, M.D. (2021). “When denial turns deadly: a develop an oral fixation later in life, examples psychoanalytic perspective”. Linda Michaels, PsyD. (Editor.), include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail https://psychologytoday.com 2021. biting and overeating. Anal 1 to 3 years  primary focus of the libido is on controlling bladder and bowel movements  toilet training: a. too much pressure can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in life, b. too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life. Phallic 3-6 years  primary focus of the id's energy is on the genitals;  Oedipal Complex (and Electra Complex); castration anxiety  to cope, children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-sex parent, thus forming the superego. Latency 6 to puberty  superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed; develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. Genital Puberty and  libido becomes active again; beyond  develop a strong interest in the opposite sex;  If development has been successful to this point, the individual will continue to develop into a well-balanced person. CRITIQUE AND COMMENTARIES ON FREUD’S THEORY Freud’s approach gave rise to the first “talking cure” on which many psychotherapies are now based. It is rarely used now in its original form. Approach is unscientific, cannot be empirically investigated. However, empirical findings have demonstrated the role of the unconscious in the following: In Cognitive Psych: procedural memory (Tulving, 1972), and automatic processing (Barch & Chartrand, 1999; Stroop, 1935), and in Social Psych: implicit processing (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Evidence for the abstract concepts has been obtained from case studies; sample lacks population validity. The case study method is prone to researcher bias. “Reexamination of Freud’s clinical work suggest that he sometimes distorted his patients’ case histories to ‘fit’ his theory (Sulloway, 1991). Too deterministic (from the Humanistic POV), leaving little room for the idea of personal agency, i.e, the free will; Sexist against women: the “penis envy” suggests women are weaker (Mcleod, 2023. “Psychodynamic Approach in Psychology”. https://www.simplypsychology.org RELEVANCE OF FREUD TODAY? Over time, in addition to affecting changes in one’s life, psychoanalysis also changes brain chemistry. Reasons why? “Putting into words”; giving voice to emotion – “diffuse and problematic emotional states can be named and mastered’; verbalizing emotions that have been cut off by trauma or intense fear; feeling and speaking about hostile feelings in therapy is discovered to be not dangerous; Developing values and ideals is a form of emotional learning in psychoanalysis. In this approach, sincerity, the examined life, concern for others, intimacy, sexuality and its multiplicity of function and expression are valued. McWilliams, N. (2003). The Educative Aspects of Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Psychology (20) (2).  tested. Usually, a different group of subjects is tested under each condition BIOPSYCH (between-subjects design), but sometimes it is possible to test the same group of subjects under each condition (within-subjects design). The experimenter assigns the subjects to conditions, administers the treatments, and measures the outcome BIOPSYCHOLOGY AS A NEUROSCIENCE in such a way that there is only one relevant difference between the conditions BIOPSYCHOLOGY being compared. - The scientific study of the biology of behavior, it refers to this field as - Participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control group. psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience; because it denotes a - This difference between the conditions is called the independent variable. biological approach to the study of psychology rather than a psychological approach to the study of biology. - The independent variable is the variable the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable - It holds that we think and act as we do because of brain mechanisms, and that we evolved those brain mechanisms because ancient animals built this way survived - The variable measured by the experimenter to assess the effect of the and reproduced. independent variable is called the dependent variable. - It deals mostly with brain activity. 3. Quasiexperimental studies these are studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest in the real world. These studies have the * Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. appearance of experiments, but they are not true experiments because potential * Neurons these are cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals. confounded variables have not been controlled-for example, by the random assignment of subjects to conditions. Biological Explanations of Behavior 4. Case Study these are studies that focus on a single case or subject are called case 1. Physiological explanation relates a behavior to the activity of the brain and other studies. Because they focus on a single case, they often provide a more in-depth organs. It deals with the machinery of the body-for example, the chemical reactions picture than that provided by an experiment or a quasiexperimental study, and they that enable hormones to influence brain activity and the routes by which brain are an excellent source of testable hypotheses. activity controls muscle contractions. * However, there is a major problem with all case studies: their generalizability-the 2. Ontogenetic explanation describes how a structure or behavior develops, degree to which their results can be applied to other cases. including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions. For example, males and females differ on average in several ways. Some of those 5. Pure Research is a study motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher-it differences can be traced to the effects of genes or prenatal hormones, some relate is done solely for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. to cultural influences, many relate partly to both, and some await further research. Moreover, pure research often becomes the topic of translational research: 3. Evolutionary explanation reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure or research that aims to translate the findings of pure research into useful applications behavior. The characteristic features of an animal are almost always modifications for humankind. of something found in ancestral species. 6. Applied research is intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind of *For example, bat wings are modified arms, and porcupine quills are modified hairs. the study. 4. Functional explanation describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did. Within a small, isolated population, a gene can spread by accident through a DIVISIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY process called genetic drift. For example, a dominant male with many offspring spreads all his genes, including some that may have been irrelevant to his success or 1. Physiological Psychology is the division of biopsychology that studies the neural even disadvantageous. mechanisms of behavior through the direct manipulation and recording of the brain in controlled experiments-surgical and electrical methods are most common. 2. Psychopharmacology is similar to physiological psychology except that it focuses FIELDS OF NEUROSCIENCE THAT ARE PARTICULARLY RELEVANT TO on the manipulation of neural activity and behavior with drugs. BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 3. Neuropsychology is the study of the psychological effects of brain damage in 1. Neuroanatomy. The study of the structure of the nervous system. human patients. 2. Neurochemistry. The study of the chemical bases of. neural activity. *The outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres-the cerebral. cortex-is most likely to 3. Neuroendocrinology. The study of interactions between the nervous system and be damaged by accident or surgery; this is one reason why neuropsychology has the endocrine system focused on this important part of the human brain. 4. Neuropathology. The study of nervous system disorders. 4. Psychophysiology is the division of biopsychology that studies the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects. 5. Neuropharmacology. The study of the effects of drugs on neural activity. * The usual measure of brain activity is the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) 6. Neurophysiology. The study of the functions, and activities of the brain. * Psychophysiological measures are muscle tension, eye movement, and several indicators of autonomic nervous system activity (e.g.,. heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, and electrical conductance of the skin). TYPES OF RESEARCH THAT CHARACTERIZE BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH * The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the division of the nervous system that 1. Comparative approach is the study of biological processes by comparing regulates the body's inner environment. different species. For example, comparing the behavior of species that do not have a cerebral cortex with the behavior of species that do can provide valuable clues * For example, psychophysiological experiments have indicated that persons with about. schizophrenia have difficulty smoothly tracking a moving object such as a pendulum (Meyhöfer et al., 2014). 2. Experiment is the method used by scientists to study causation, that is, to find out what causes what. To conduct an experiment involving living subjects, the 5. Cognitive Neuroscience is the youngest division of biopsychology. Cognitive experimenter first designs two or more conditions under which the subjects will be neuroscientists study the neural bases of cognition, a term that generally refers to higher intellectual processes such as thought, memory, attention, and complex Noradrenaline perceptual processes.  Responsible for tonic and reflexive changes in cardiovascular tone. * The major method of cognitive neuroscience is functional brain imaging: recording (Concentration) images of the activity of the living human, brain while a participant is engaged in a particular cognitive activity. Dopamine 6. Comparative Psychology is the division of biopsychology that deals generally  It is responsible for how we feel pleasure. It's a big part of our unique human with the biology of behavior, rather than specifically with the neural mechanisms of ability to think and plan. behavior. SEROTONIN * Comparative psychologists compare the behavior of different species in order to understand the evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior.  It is believed to help regulate mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory, and sexual desire and function. * Some comparative psychologists study behavior in the laboratory; others engage in ethological research-the study of animal behavior, in its natural environment. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) HOW BIOPSYCHOLOGISTS CONDUCT THEIR WORK  Enables the body and mind to relax and fall asleep, and to sleep soundly throughout the night. * Converging operation different combined approaches that focused on a single problem, in such a way that the strengths of one approach compensate for the Acetylcholine weaknesses of the others.  It is about contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily * Biopsychology typically comes from converging operations from the convergence secretions, and slows heart rate. Learning Neurotransmitter of neuropsychological case studies, quasiexperiments with human participants, and Glutamate controlled experiments on laboratory animals.  It is responsible for Learning and Memory * The strength of biopsychology lies in the diversity of its methods and approaches. This means that, in evaluating biopsychological claims, it is rarely sufficient to Endorphins Analgesics consider the results of one study or even of one line of experiments using the same method or approach.  which means they diminish the perception of pain and considered natural painkillers * Scientific inference is the empirical method that biopsychologists and other scientists use to study the unobservable. Effects of Chemicals/ Neurotransmitters in our Brain Enhancing The Powers of Mind Biopsychology  A decrease or increase in the level of each of these chemicals can alter brain functions. To maintain these chemicals at its normal level, you need to take care of Importance of Brain your brain by having a healthy lifestyle and diet. Your brain is the master organ of your body for it controlled every organ and cells inside you. Your brain is responsible for your thoughts, behaviour, and personality. 3 Parts of the Brain Brain The brain is enclosed in your skull and weighs approximately 3.3 lbs (1.5 kilograms). It is composed of billions of brain cells or neurons which send information from the brain to the spinal cord and vice versa through electrical impulses called the action potential. Aside from using electrical impulses, it transmits information through chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitter  Neurotransmitters are often referred to as the body’s chemical messengers. They are the molecules used by the nervous system to transmit messages between neurons, or from neurons to muscles. Transmission of Message Cerebrum  Synaptic cleft - The small gap between the synapses of neurons. Here, electrical  The cerebrum occupies the largest portion of the total brain weight which is 1200 signals that have travelled along the axon are briefly converted into chemical ones g in females and 1400 g in males (Tate, 2009). It is divided into two hemispheres the through the release of neurotransmitters, causing a specific response in the right and the left hemisphere. This was connected by large bundles of fibers called receiving neuron. the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes Neurotransmitters These neurotransmitters are responsible for your mood, learning, stress responses, and concentration. Types of Neurotransmitters Adrenaline  the fight and flight neurotransmitter Frontal Lobe  It is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as emotions, impulse control, problem solving, social interaction, and motor function Parietal Lobe  the somatosensory cortex. It integrates or combines the things we see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Damage to the parietal lobe may lead to dysfunction in the senses. Occipital Lobe  It contains the primary visual cortex which integrates and processes the things we see. visual processing center. Temporal Lobe  It is the lower lobe of the cortex, sitting close to ear level within the skull.  responsible for interpreting the things we hear from our environment.  It is also responsible for our memory  Hippocampus, Long-term memory  Amygdala- Emotional Memory Cerebellum  cerebellum or little brain is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture. It makes our feet and hands to be coordinated whenever we walk, dance, and play sports. Brain Stem  It is the relay center that connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum and the spinal cord.  It is an important part of the brain for it contains your vital signs. Any problems involving the structure of your brain stem may be fatal. How to take care of your Brain? 1. Drink adequate amount of water-Your brain is composed of 80% percent water. It carries the essential nutrients in your brain. 2. Exercise Daily - at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise or 15 minutes of intense exercise daily. 3. Eat Healthy and proper Diet-  These are green vegetables like spinach and broccoli which help in slow cognitive decline;  fatty fish like salmon which help in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease;  berries which improve memory; tea and coffee which increase concentration and cognitive performance and  nuts which improves memory. 4. Quality Sleep - teens need 8 to 9½ hours of sleep per night. 5. Proper Stress Management