Practical Research 2 Quarter 1 Exam PDF

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Quarter 1 - Module 1 Nature of Inquiry and Research Lesson 1: Introduction to Quantitative Research Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analy...

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Quarter 1 - Module 1 Nature of Inquiry and Research Lesson 1: Introduction to Quantitative Research Quantitative research uses scientifically collected and statistically analyzed data to investigate observable phenomena. A phenomenon is any existing or observable fact or situation that we want to unearth further or understand. It is scientific for the fact that it uses a scientific method in designing and collecting numerical data. Once data is collected, it will undergo statistical analysis like Pearson’s r, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for analysis. Since data is analyzed statistically, it is imperative that the data obtained must be numerical and quantifiable, hence its name quantitative research. Numerical data are generally easier to collect than descriptions or phrases used in qualitative research. Information like student’s grades in different subjects, number of hoursof engagement in social media platforms of teens, percentage of consumers who prefer the color blue for soap packaging, average daily Covid-19 patient recovery per region are just few examples of research data expressed in numbers. Some data on the other hand, are not directly countable and thus require conversion from non-numerical information into numerical information. For instance, determining which brand of canned sardines is the best choice for consumers in terms of taste cannot be expressed in numbers unless we do a survey using a rating scale. Several forms of rating scales are available, e.g., the Likert scale that we can use to quantify data. Usually, they come in a selection of numbers with a corresponding meaning for each choice, for example: 1= tastes very good, 2 = satisfactory, or 3 = undesirable. Numerical choices convert texts into numbers so the researcher can perform mathematical operations for faster, more accurate, and more objective analysis. Characteristics of Quantitative Research Quantitative research is commonly used in natural sciences research problems because of the following characteristics: 1. LARGE SAMPLE SIZE. To obtain more meaningful statistical result, the data must come from a large sample size. 2. OBJECTIVE. Data gathering and analysis of results are done accurately, objectively, and are unaffected by the researcher’s intuition and personal guesses. 3. VISUAL RESULT PRESENTATION. Data is numerical, which makes presentation through graphs, charts, and tables possible and for better  conveyance and interpretation. 4. FASTER DATA ANALYSIS. The use of a statistical tools give way for a less time- consuming data analysis. 5. GENERALIZED DATA. Data taken from a sample can be applied to the population if sampling is done accordingly, i.e., sufficient size and random samples were taken. 6. FAST DATA COLLECTION. Depending on the type of data needed, collection can be quick and easy. Quantitative research uses standardized research instruments that allow the researcher to collect data from a large sample size efficiently. For instance, a single survey form can be administered simultaneously to collect various measurable characteristics like age, gender, socio-economic status, etc. 7. RELIABLE DATA. Data is taken and analyzed objectively from a sample as a representative of the population, making it more credible and reliable for policymaking and decision making. 8. REPLICATION. The Quantitative method can be repeated to verify findings enhancing its validity, free from false or immature conclusions. Strengths of Quantitative Research The following are the strengths of quantitative research. 1. Quantitative research can be replicated or repeated. 2. Findings are generalizable to the population. 3. Conclusive establishment of cause and effect 4. Numerical and quantifiable data can be used to predict outcomes 5. Fast and easy data analysis using statistical software. 6. Fast and easy data gathering 7. Very objective 8. Validity and reliability can be established Weaknesses of Quantitative Research The following are the disadvantages of quantitative research: 1. It lacks the necessary data to explore a problem or concept in depth. 2. It does not provide comprehensive explanation of human experiences. 3. Some information cannot be described by numerical data such as feelings, and beliefs. 4. The research design is rigid and not very flexible. 5. The participants are limited to choose only from the given responses. 6. The respondents may tend to provide inaccurate responses. 7. A Large sample size makes data collection more costly.  Kinds of Quantitative Research Quantitative research is a broad spectrum that it can be classified into smaller and more specific kinds: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental. 1. Descriptive design is used to describe a particular phenomenon by observing it as it occurs in nature. There is no experimental manipulation and the researcher does not start with a hypothesis. The goal of descriptive research is only to describe the person or object of the study. An example of descriptive research design is “the determination of the different kinds of physical activities and how often high school students do it during the quarantine period.” 2. The correlational design identifies the relationship between variables. Data is collected by observation since it does not consider the cause and effect for example, the relationship between the amount of physical activity done and student academic achievement. 3. Ex post facto design is used to investigate a possible relationship between previous events and present conditions. The term “Ex post facto”, means after the fact, looks at the possible causes of an already occurring phenomenon. Just like the first two, there is no experimental manipulation in this design. An example of this is “how does the parent’s academic achievement affect the children obesity?” 4. A quasi-experimental design is used to establish the cause and effect relationship of variables. Although it resembles the experimental design, the quasi-experimental has lesser validity due to the absence of random selection and assignment of subjects. Here, the independent variable is identified but not manipulated. The researcher does not modify pre- existing groups of subjects. The group exposed to treatment (experimental) is compared to the group unexposed to treatment (control): example, the effects of unemployment on attitude towards following safety protocol in ECQ declared areas. 5. Experimental design like quasi- experimental is used to establish the cause and effect relationship of two or more variables. This design provides a more conclusive result because it uses random assignment of subjects and experimental manipulations. For example, a comparison of the effects of various blended learning to the reading comprehension of elementary pupils. LESSON 2: Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields The value of quantitative research to man’s quest to discover the unknown and improve underlying conditions is undeniable. Throughout history, quantitative research has paved the way to finding meaningful solutions to difficulties. For instance, the development of vaccines to strengthen our immunity against viruses causing highly communicable diseases like polio, influenza, chickenpox, and measles to name a few, underwent thorough experimental trials. You bet, scientists and medical experts all over the world today are working their best to fast track the development, testing and release of the vaccine for the Corona Virus Disease of 2019 (Covid-19) as the pandemic has critically affected the world economy, education, as well as physical and emotional well- being of people. The findings of the quantitative study can influence leaders and law-makers’ decisions for crafting and implementing laws for the safety and welfare of the more significant majority. For example, a community with high cases of Covid-19 positive patients is mandated by law to be under Enhanced Community Quarantine where only the most essential businesses can operate. On the other hand, cities with less or zero case will be under General Community Quarantine where some businesses, public and private offices are already allowed to operate. Using quantitative design helps us determine and better understand relationships between variables or phenomenon crucial to reducing the range of uncertainty because the mathematics (more of this in the last module) behind quantitative studies helps us make close estimates of the outcome (dependent variable) from a given condition/s (independent variable). Relationship between demand and supply, age and health, discipline and academic achievement, practice and winning at sports, depression and suicidal rates, algae population and Oxygen demand are just a few examples of real-life applications of correlation studies in the past that we still apply today. Most inventions and innovations are products of quantitative studies. Before you can enjoy the uses and features of a smart phone, it took years of research to establish compliance to standards for interoperability, to find the most cost-effective raw materials, identify the sleekest and sturdiest design, the fastest data saving and processing power, and most marketable add-ons according to consumer needs. Indeed, mankind will dwell in the darkness of ignorance if not for the people who conducted their research before reading about it from books or manuals.  The table below shows some of the contributions of quantitative research to other fields and their example. Field Contribution/Application Example Social Science  Effects of intervention to group The effects of pandemic behavior. on social behavior and  Understanding cultural or racial economic stability. conflicts.  Human satisfaction and stressors Natural and Physical  Investigate the effectiveness of Antidiabetic properties of Sciences a product or treatment to common Philippine herbs. illnesses.  Finding or enhancing alternative energy sources.  Advancement in material science. Agriculture and  Increase the yield of crops The effectiveness of Fisheries  Prevention and cure for crops organic and inorganic and livestock diseases fertilizer to vegetable production. Sports  Enhance athletic performance Diet and exercise techniques for different kinds of sports. Business  Device marketing strategies Effectiveness of Facebook  Improve marketability ads on sales. Arts and Design  Relationship between color and The effects of music on architectural space learning and behavior.  Multimedia use and adaptation forrecreation, business marketing and lifestyle changes. Environmental Science  Causes and effects of climate The environmental factors change affecting natural calamities LESSON 3: Variables in Quantitative Research A Variable is anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. For instance, during the quarantine period, your mother planted tomato seedlings in pots. Now common understanding from science tells you that several factors are affecting the growth of tomatoes: sunlight, water, kind of soil, and nutrients in soil. How fast the tomato seedlings will grow and bear fruits will depend on these factors. The growth of tomatoes and the number of fruits produced are examples of the Dependent Variables. The amount of sunlight, water, and nutrients in the soil are the Independent Variables. If there is an existing relationship between the independent and dependent variables, then the value of the dependent variable varies in response to the manipulation done on the independent variable. The independent variable is also identified as the presumed cause while the dependent variable is the presumed effect. In an experimental quantitative design, the independent variable is pre-defined and manipulated by the researcher while the dependent variable is observed and measured. For descriptive, correlational and ex post facto quantitative research designs, independent and dependent variables simply do not apply. It is important to note other factors that may influence the outcome (dependent variable) which are not manipulated or pre-defined by the researcher. These factors are called Extraneous Variables. In our example above, the presence of pests and environmental stressors (e.g. pets, extreme weather) are the extraneous variables. Since extraneous variables may affect the result of the experiment, it is crucial for the researcher to identify them prior to conducting the experiment and control them in such a way that they do not threaten the internal validity (i.e. accurate conclusion) of the result. Controlling the extraneous variable can be done by holding it constant or distribute its effect across the treatment. When the researcher fails to control the extraneous variable that it caused considerable effect to the outcome, the extraneous variable becomes a Confounding Variable. For example, if the tomato had been infested by pests (confounding variable) then you cannot conclude that manipulations in sunlight, water and soil nutrients (independent variable) are the only contributing factors for the stunted growth and poor yield (dependent variable) of the plant or is it the result of both the independent variables and the confounding variable. The variables can also be classified according to their nature. The diagram below shows the different classifications: Quantitative Variables, also called numerical variables are the type of variables used in quantitative research because they are numeric and can be measured. Under this category are discrete and continuous variables. A. Discrete variables are countable whole numbers. It does not take negative values or values between fixed points. For example: number of students in a class, group size and frequency. B. Continuous variables take fractional (non-whole number) values that can either be a positive or a negative. Example: height, temperature. Numerical data have two levels of measurement, namely: A. Interval are quantitative variables where the interval or differences between consecutive values are equal and meaningful but the numbers are arbitrary. For example, the difference between 36 degrees and 37 degrees is the same as between 100 degrees and 101 degrees. The zero point does not suggest the absence of a property being measured. Temperature at 0 degree Celsius is assigned as the melting point of ice. Other examples of interval data would be year and IQ score. A. Ratio type of data is similar to interval, the only difference is the presence of a true zero value. The zero point in this scale indicates the absence of the quantity being measured. Examples are age, height, weight and distance. II. Qualitative Variables are also referred to as Categorical Variables are not expressed in numbers but are descriptions or categories. It can be further divided into nominal, ordinal or dichotomous. B. Dichotomous are consisting of only two distinct categories or values. For example, a response to a question either be a yes or no. C. Nominal variable simply defines groups of subjects. Here you may have more than 2 categories of equivalent magnitude. For example, a basketball player’s number is used to distinguish him from other players. It certainly does not follow that player 10 is better than player 8. Other examples are blood type, hair color and mode of transportation. D. Ordinal variable, from the name itself denotes that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This variable can have a qualitative or quantitative attribute. For example, a survey questionnaire may have a numerical rating as choices like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5ranked accordingly (5=highest, 1=lowest) or categorical rating like strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. Other examples or ordinal variable: cancer stage (Stage I, Stage II, Stage III), Spotify Top 20 hits, academic honors (with highest, with high, with honors).  Quarter 1 - Module 2 Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem LESSON 1: Designing Research Topic The first and foremost step in the research is selecting and properly defining a research problem. Before starting a laborious journey of finding the unknown, you need to know first what it is that you want to find out, where and how you are going to find the answers to your questions, and what specific qualities are you looking for. For instance, you want to find a specific kind of fish in the ocean; however, the ocean is so vast that it is almost impossible for you to achieve that goal of finding the fish without equipping yourself with the right tools and information about it. You may need to know first its behavior and living conditions before you can precisely pinpoint the perfect spot to find the fish. Thus, baseline information is needed for a successful quest. That fish analogy can be applied to finding a research topic. A well-defined research topic is essential for a successful research. When the topic is not well-defined, it becomes unmanageable and may result in some drawbacks during data collection and analysis that could compromise the strength of your study. Hence, choosing a topic must undergo proper and thorough planning and designing. The four basic steps in designing a research topic are the following: (1) choose a broad topic,(2) do preliminary research, (3) define the problem, and (4) refine the question. Guided with these steps, a student researcher can certainly jumpstart a quantitative research project. Steps in Developing Research Topic Despite the advancement in knowledge and technology, there is still a lot to discover in this world. There is still an ocean of things that we are yet to explore. It can be a difficult situation that we want to improve or eliminate, a better understanding of the unfamiliar, information gaps we wish to fill, or theories that we want to validate. What limits our choice of a topic are our capacity, understanding, resources, and skill. Most researchers will agree that choosing a good topic is a challenging and tedious task. Because a research topic serves as the groundwork for any succeeding actions, it must be defined appropriately at the beginning of the research work. Otherwise, it may result in unanticipated complexities to the researcher. Developing a research problem can be done in four (4) steps: 1. Choose a broad topic 2. Do a preliminary research 3. Define the problem 4. Refine the question  As a student researcher, let us go through these steps to guide us in choosing a quantitative research topic related to our chosen field. 1. CHOOSE A BROAD TOPIC. The first step is quite simple. As a Senior High School student, these tips will surely guide you in selecting a broad topic for quantitative research: A. Choose an interesting topic. Research is a very challenging task that demands your time and persistence. Your motivation to find the answer to the problem should keep you going, thus building a momentum along the way. Therefore, your research topic must be something that you are passionate about. Review your answers in activity 1, and it might lead you to the right path. After all, nothing is more satisfying than accomplishing something that matters to you. B. Select a significant topic. A topic that is worth researching must be able to answer or solve problems in the community. No one will take an interest in your topic if it is obsolete and does not address any real problem. To be proactive and to take part in solving problems with socio-economic relevance gives a sense of accomplishment. You do not even have to look far, just take a look at your household, neighborhood, school, group of friends, or local community for a common problem or difficulty. Activity 2 will help you identify some main points that can serve as a basis for choosing your research study. C. Choose a topic relevant to your field. One of the goals of this course is for you to be able to produce a quantitative research study that is aligned to your chosen track. A SHS student under ABM must choose a topic related to business and management while students taking HUMSS may consider choosing a topic about politics, culture, and arts. Choosing a topic that you can relate will certainly make your research project less challenging. In the event, that the three tips above do not shed some light on your minds, do not despair; other sources of ideas like the ones below may be available for you. i. Department of Science and Technology (DOST) Harmonized National R & D Agenda for 2017-2022. Early in 2017, DOST, together with researchers from the health, agriculture, industry, and academe, released research priorities for 2017 to 2022 that are relevant for the economic growth of the country. Visit this link https://bit.ly/3hHTf2Y for a list of suggested studies. ii. Review of Literature. Some researchers reveal that reading previous studies fueled their minds with tons of research topics. Reviewing the literature lets them know what has been studied, what is not yet done, and what other researchers suggest working on. Journals, periodicals, and peer-reviewed articles are a good read. iii. Field experts. Gather up some guts to approach anyone you know that are experts on the field of your choice because they may give valuable inputs or may currently be working on a study where you can collaborate. Your instructor may also give you some advice, especially on the possible obstacles, resource limitations, and expanse of the study. iv. Brainstorming. Do not underestimate the ideas from classmates, friends, and family members. You may be overwhelmed at first by the outpouring of ideas, just build a list, then cross off any topic unrelated to your field or not so interesting to you. Of course, you must take precautionary measures in doing this by observing physical distancing. You can use any social media platform to do this.  1. DO A PRELIMINARY RESEARCH. The second step is much more time-consuming. Once you have chosen a broad topic, you need to have a better understanding of it by reading some more articles, journals, and related research studies. Find out how other researchers gathered their data, what research instruments were used, how the data were analyzed, and what important findings they shared. Take note of every relevant research study for future reference. If you started the topic search (first step) by doing a literature review, the second step is just a continuation of what you started. A much deeper discussion of the literature review will be done in module 3. 2. DEFINE THE PROBLEM. After getting enough information, you may be able to list some questions or problems that you want to research. At this stage, you should be able to narrow down broad topic into feasible and manageable research questions. A broad topic can be narrowed down by limiting the population, place, period, or a certain characteristic. However, be very mindful that your problem may not be too narrow that it becomes very simple and does not need to collect unique data or does not generate new information. A very narrow research question can be developed by doing a comparative study or expanding the scope of the study. 3. REFINE THE QUESTION. This step lets you evaluate the questions formulated. What specific questions should you ask? How should you gather your data sufficient to answer the questions? Are the questions too narrow, or does it need to be trimmed down? While evaluating the research question, consider the requirements of the course. How much time are you given to finish the research? What resources do you need and are they available? You will learn more about research questions in lesson 4. LESSON 2: RESEARCH TITLE Basic Guidelines in Make Research Title A research study title is the very first thing a reader comes across when searching for scientific literature. It is a concise description of the content of the research study containing the fewest possible words, yet adequate to describe the contents of the paper for a simple reason that we do not want to mislead the readers. After conceptualizing a most probable research topic, drafting the title early in the research process helps in keeping your focus on the subject. The following are the basic guidelines in making a research study title: 1. Use an accurate description of the subject and scope of the study instead of using general terms. 2. Do not use abbreviations except for commonly known ones like DNA and ICT. 3. Do not include words like “The study of,” “analysis of,” “an investigation of” or similar construction as these would only lengthen the title. 4. Include the main dependent and independent variables. 5. Be mindful of the proper use of grammar and punctuation. 6. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs as well as the first letter of the first and last words.  7. State in a declarative form, although you may also see titles in question form from time to time. 8. The year the study has been conducted should not be indicated unless it is a historical study. 9. Use current terminology. 10. Depending on the institutional requirements, 5 to15 words are sufficient to describe the research study. 11. Use the common name instead of chemical formula (e.g., NH4) 12. Write and italicize the full scientific names. 13. Must reflect the tone of the paper. An academic research paper has title which is not casual, or informal, or does not contain humor. The following steps can guide you in writing your research title: 1. Determine what it is that you wish to accomplish or know from your study. Write one to two sentences to state the main objectives of your research project. 2. Include important keywords and variables. Revise the sentences into one complete sentence that includes important keywords and variables of the study. 3. Shorten the title by eliminating unnecessary words. You may also shrink a phrase into a simpler phrase or a single word. In doing this, make sure that the main thought of the research study is retained. 4. Correct grammar and punctuation errors if there is any. 5. Observe proper formatting. The format may vary according to the requirements of the course or school. Please seek guidance from your professor. LESSON 3: BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH Background of the Study The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of the context of the study. When we say context, it means the situation or circumstances within which your research topic was conceptualized. Ideally, this part is written when you have already conducted a literature review and has a good perception of the topic so you can articulate the importance and validity of the research problem. It is also in this part of the paper where you justify the need to conduct a research study about the topic selected by establishing the research gap. A research gap is an under or unexplored area of a topic that requires further exploration. The gap can be in a form of other variables, conditions, population, methodology, or test subject. To identify research gaps, an exhaustive literature review regarding the topic is required. You may have to look for similar or related studies employing quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods from legitimate sources and examine the gray areas. Reading through the Discussion, Conclusion, or the Recommendations sections of the articles will help you know potential areas of study that need further attention. Identifying research gaps sometimes would even make researchers modify their research problem as they get noteworthy ideas from fellow researchers. While both the Background of the Study and the Review of Related Literature involves reading past related studies, they differ in some aspects. The former is at the introductory part of the paper with the purpose of relaying the importance of your research study; the latter is more comprehensive and thoroughly discuss the studies mentioned in the background of research. Moreover, the background of the study will answer the following questions:  1. What is already known about the topic? 2. What is not known about the topic? 3. Why do you need to address those gaps? 4. What is the rationale of your study? While answering these questions, keep in mind that the studies you include in this part of the paper are laid down as part of the introduction and should not be discussed in great detail. The depth and length of the background information largely depend on how much information you think the reader needs to know to have a full grasp of the topic being discussed. LESSON 4: RESEARCH QUESTIONS Nature of Quantitative Research Problem Once a person encountered uncertainty, being inquisitive, you will find ways for answers or solution. Ignited by interest, curiosity, or need you will find yourself pondering about the current problem you are facing. When you are thinking and behaving this way, you are then confronted by a problem that can be a source of a research problem. A research problem is simple as a problem you would like to research. Quantitative Research Problem dealt more with the precision and specificity of the problem. Furthermore, the quantitative research problem describes trends and patterns of a phenomenon. When you have identified your quantitative research problem, you can now state it and make sure to establish its place in your study. In your written paper, this can be found as Statement of the Problem, where it formally introduces the problem that you want to investigate or address. Then you will start specifying what you want to answer in your study. Research Problem and Research Questions The research questions help to clarify and specify the research problem. Research questions are also considered as sub-problems of your research problem. These questions are informative in nature. It specifies the method of collecting and analyzing data and the type of data to be collected since you are exploring a quantitative research problem. Characteristics of Good Research Questions Once you have already enumerated your research questions for your study, it is important that you consider its quality to answer and explain your research problem. The following are good characteristics of research questions, as described by Fraenkel and Wallen (2020). Feasible. Consider the amount of time, energy, money, respondents, and even your current situation as a student-researcher. Is the research problem possible? Will it not spend unreasonable amount? Consider these examples: “How do parents feel about the blended learning modality for elementary learners?” and “How would giving each learner their own laptop to be used in this blended learning modality affect their performance tasks?” The first example is definitely a more feasible research question. Considering the resources, it is more possible to gather the data needed to answer the question.  Clear. The clarity of how the questions stated lead to agreement of meaning of the readers of your study. Since your research questions are also considered as the main focus in the gathering and analyzing the data, it is therefore very important that these are stated clearly. Significant. Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will answering these questions provide an additional contribution to address the given research problem? In other words, are the research questions really worth investigating? At this point, you do not just consider the time and money that you will spend, but more importantly, the value of what you are trying to investigate. So aside from the reason that your chosen research problem is within your interest, you should also provide a sound justification of your choice as a researcher. Ethical. Always consider the welfare of people, animals or who so ever involve in your study. Look into ways of answering the research questions without inflicting physical and psychological harm to persons involved. Formulating Research Questions Research questions can be generally classified into two: general and specific. The general question of the study is derived from the research problem while the specific questions are anchored on the general research problem. For example: This study aims to determine the relationship between the types learning delivery mode and students’ learning styles. Furthermore, it seeks to answer the following research questions: (1) What are the different learning delivery modes of the school? (2) What the various learning styles of the students? (3) Is there a significant relationship between the different learning delivery modes of the school and the learning styles of its students? Notice that a general problem was presented first. Then it was followed by the specific questions considered as research questions of the study. In stating quantitative research questions, you should also consider the design of your quantitative research. Quantitative research designs will be elaborated in Module 4. For the purpose of writing your research question, here’s a quick guide of research questions for descriptive research, correlational research, Ex Post Facto research, Experimental, and Quasi- experimental research. Research Questions for Descriptive Research focuses on observing and reporting factors or aspects of the research problem. Phrases such as how often/frequently, how many/much, what is/are, to what extent/degree, and the likes are used in these questions. For example, you study the use of social media among Senior High School Students, you can ask the following questions: What are the various social media platforms used by Senior High Students? How many hours students spend on social media per week? Research Questions for Correlational Research aim to determine the relationships among two or more variables in your research problem. Correlational research questions usually begin with the phrases “Is there a significant relationship” or “What is the relationship between/among”. In the study of use of social media and level of digital literacy of students  following questions can be asked: What is the relationship between the length of hours spent on social media and level of digital literacy of students? Is there a significant relationship between the type of social media used and the level digital literacy of students? Research Questions for Ex Post Facto Research attempt to identify the causes of the phenomenon in the context of your research problem. It is also assumed that no control or manipulation of variable has been done in order to cause the effect. It is understood that the cause of the problem already exists before you conducted your study. For example, ex post facto study on family background and digital literacy of students, the following questions can be asked: Is there a difference in the literacy level of students between their cultural and educational family background? Research Questions for Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research suggests that answers to these questions are brought about by manipulation or control of a certain variable during the conduct of the study. These questions provide explanation to the causal relationship of variables. The following research questions can be asked on studies on elementary student’s remedial sessions and academic performance of students: Is there a significant difference in the posttest scores of the control group and experimental group? LESSON 5: Scope and Delimitation of the Study Scope and Delimitation In doing research study, we make sure that we have certainty and reasons for drawing the inclusion and exclusion of research variables. We do not write for the sake of writing the parts of the research paper; such as setting the scope and delimitation of your study. It is important because it draws the boundary of your study. Without doing so, research procedures and results will not be coherent to the goal of your study. The scope specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or participant, and timeline. Delimitation cites factors of your study that are not included or excluded or those you will not deal in your study. In this section of your research paper, you may also state the reasons why you did not include the variables. A clearly written scope and delimitation of the study will make it definitely easier to answer questions which are related or not related to your study. Components of Scope and Delimitation In writing the scope and delimitation of your study, you are also asking the basic profile questions of your research. The following are the components of the scope and delimitation of the study but not limited to:  Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded? Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study? Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study? Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data? Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents? Method and Research Instruments. How are going to collect the data? Difference between Delimitation and Limitation of the Study The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the design and conduct of the study. Along the way of conducting your study, you will encounter limitations which you have not drawn before you start – these are the delimitations of study. Most of the delimitations arose from the applicability or usefulness of the findings of the study to the current problem. Variables not included in your study are also determined by delimitation of your study. While on the other hand, limitation of the study are those variables included in your study. Hence, limitation of the study is actually the identified scope of the study.  Quarter 1 - Module 3 Conceptual Framework and Review of Related Literature LESSON 1: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK As you begin writing your research project, you must consider the framework that is suitable for your study. What is a research framework? A research framework illustrates the structure or blueprint of the research plan and helps the researcher formulate relevant research questions. The framework consists of the key concepts and assumed relationships of the research project. It is normally used as a guide for researchers so that they are more focused on the scope of their studies. It can be presented using visual (diagrams, chart, etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating the concepts and relationships of the study) forms. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. A theoretical framework is commonly used for studies that anchor on time- tested theories that relate the findings of the investigation to the underpinning relevant theory of knowledge. At the same time, a conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support the study. It is primarily a conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans to study. Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework The following are the similar characteristics of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: 1. Provide an overall view of the research study; 2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;  3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives; 4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis; 5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology; 6. Help in gathering and interpreting data and 7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity. Differences between the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Theoretical framework Conceptual framework Scope  Broader  Narrower/focused  Can be used in different studies  Directly related to a specific study Focus of Content  The particular theory used  Set of related concepts to a already in the field specific study Number of Theories  Presents one theory at a time  May synthesize one or more theories Time of Development  Already existing before the  Develop while planning and conduct of the study writing a specific research  These are the following guidelines and strategies of choosing and developing a Research Framework according to Barrot (2017, p.73). Theoretical framework Conceptual framework  Understand the variables included in your  Identify the key concepts in your study by study as well as their relationship with one referring to your research questions or another. objectives.  Review the existing literature related to your  Search for existing theories that incorporate research topic. the same concept and look into their  Using the information that you have relationships with one another. gathered from the literature, look for  Using the existing theories as a guide, plot possible theories that may potentially your conceptual framework using a concept account for the expected results of your map. research topic.  In case that there are concepts not covered  From these theories, select the one that is by the selected theories. Incorporate them most relevant to your study and can provide into your framework. However, make sure a blueprint for your research. that you are incorporating this concept into your framework because it is necessary for your paper.  After completing the initial draft of your conceptual framework, write a narrative explanation of each concept and how each of them relates to one another. Again, there should be a basis for the relationship between the concepts being incorporated.  Refer once again to your research questions. Check if the conceptual framework is aligned with them.  Note that the process of creating a conceptual framework is developmental. This means that it may still be refined or changed as you read more literature and look into more theories.  In some cases, the research hypothesis is presented at the end of the conceptual framework. Concept Map A concept map is a visual representation of information that helps show the relationship between ideas. Concept maps begin with the main topic and then branch out into sub-topics, reflecting the connection of all the elements in the study. It can also provide and organize new ideas. It is composed of different figures such as lines, circles, boxes, and other marks or symbols which represent the elements of your research. It can take the form of charts, graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts. Concept map arranges related ideas in a hierarchy. You start broad, and the sub-topics will get more and more specific. It also helps you in formulating a specific topic from the general or the main idea with significant connections of information. In other words, understanding the big picture makes the details more significant and easier to comprehend.  Concept maps are very useful for researchers and readers who understand better visually. With the proper connection of lines and linking arrows to shapes and other symbols representing your concepts about the research, the readers can visualize a comprehensive picture of your study. However, in the concept map, you are not yet actually researching your study. It is developing or creating your plan or blueprint so that you will be guided on the flow and direction of your research study. And that includes your research questions, variables, and methodology. It means that you are just gathering and soliciting ideas on what you could learn about your chosen topic. Before creating your conceptual framework, you have to understand first the different variables of your study. Although these were already discussed in the previous module for the purpose of utilizing it in your framework, an in-depth concept is a need. The independent variable is the “presumed cause” of the research problem. It is the reason for any “change” or difference in a dependent variable. It can be purposely manipulated by the researcher, depending on the focus of the study. It maybe can cause, influence, or affect the result or outcome of the study. It is also called as the experimental, treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable. Moreover, it refers to the variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. The dependent variable is the “presumed effect” of the research problem. It is usually the problem itself or the element that is being questioned. This variable is altered as a result of experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is also called as the criterion, effect, response, or outcome variable which captures the interest of the researcher and requires analysis, interpretation, and implication of the findings of the study. The variable that depends on other factors that are measured and are affected or influenced by the independent variable. The moderating variable is an independent variable which influences the direction and the strength of the connection between independent and dependent variables. The independent variable interacts with the moderator variable, which makes the relationship of the independent and dependent variable stronger or weaker. It alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable base on its value. The moderator thus influences the effective component of the cause-effect relationship between the two variables. This is also called as the interaction effect. Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an element that exists between the independent to the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating) variable is an integral part of the cause-effect relationship and helps us to understand the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It is a variable that describes the effect and influence of the relationship between the variables and what is controlling that relationship. This is also called as correlated or mediator variables The control variable is a special type of independent variable that can influence the dependent variable. It takes an active role in quantitative studies. Statistical procedures are used to control this variable. It is useful to integrate the control variables into your research study, but it is not the main focus.  It has somehow an effect on the dependent variable and an extension of the independent variable. However, if you omit the control variable from your study, the findings would be less accurate. It is mostly relevant if your study is about to prove a cause-effect relationship by undertaking statistical analysis. The Input-Process-Output Model The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is a conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs, required process, and the output. This approach is seated on the premise of acquiring essential information by converting inputs into outputs through the required processing steps in obtaining the result. The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional model that is usually used in action research where an intervention or solution is necessary to solve the identified problem. The Input is usually the independent variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is the intervention or solution consist of the instruments and analyses used to acquire the result. Lastly, the Output is the findings or outcome of the interventions being made to solve the identified problem. LESSON 2: DEFINITION OF TERMS Definition of Terms is also called as Operational Definition of Variables (ODV). The word operational refers to “how the word/term was used in the study. At the same time, the variables are the elements essential to the study. There are two ways in defining the terms, the conceptual and operational definition. The conceptual definition is the meaning of the term that is based on how it is defined in the dictionary or encyclopedia. Operational definition on the other hand is the meaning of the term based on how it was used in the study. Generally, there are two cases in which important terms need to be defined. First, if the term is not common or widely known and second, if the term has a specific or unique meaning in the context of the study. Benefits of Having Definition of Terms 1. It is a useful place to include technical terms in the topic of the research questions. 2. It can clarify the definition of term, especially if it has a different meaning. Define the term according to how it was used in the study. 3. It makes it easier to revisit or check the meaning of a term instead of trying to locate it through the paper. 4. Helps to ensure that the reader can understand the technical terminologies and jargons while reading the paper. Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms 1. Write a brief introductory statement. It shortly describes the content of the definition of terms. 2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that  the variables and key terms found in the title are included). 3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically. 4. Indention should be applied to each term. 5. The term should be followed with a period. 1. It can be underlined or not. 2. It can be bold and italic or not. 3. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point). 4. Acronym/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first, followed by the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning. 5. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study). 6. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your paper. Note: Refer also to your institutional format (some institutions have different formats). Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms 1. Conceptual definition Face to face. It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly at each other. Module. Is any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an educational unit that covers a single subject or topic. Online. Is controlled by or connected to another computer or network. 2. Operational definition Face to face. This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the teacher and students should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom. Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific subject given to students under the modular method. It is also an alternative distance learning delivery in which students are required to read and answer the activities specified in the module. Online. It refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and students will have their lessons using internet connectivity. LESSON 3: RESEARCH HYPHOYHESIS A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific and testable prediction on what you expect to happen with the variables in your study. Usually, it proposes a possible relationship between the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what the research measures). It is also described as an “educated guess” of what possibly the result would be of your research, which should be supported on existing theories and knowledge. Furthermore, the hypothesis states a tentative answer to your research question that can be tested by further investigation in which you can support or refute it through scientific research methods such as data collection and statistical analysis. It is the primary idea of any inquiry that transforms the research questions into a prediction and integrates components like variables, population, and the relation between the variables. Hypothesis formulation is employed when conducting correlational, ex-post facto, quasi experimental, and experimental studies. As a researcher, you must determine whether your hypothesis is accepted or not base on the findings and outcome of your research study. Not all studies have a hypothesis while, some studies have several hypotheses. Types of Research Hypothesis 1. Simple Hypothesis A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables, the independent variable and the dependent variable.It shows a connection between one independent variable and a single dependent variable. Ex: The higher the poverty rate in society (one independent variable), the higher the number would be the out of school youth (one dependent variable). 2. Complex hypothesis The complex hypothesis reflects the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. It expresses a connection between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables. Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits (independent variables) leads to boost immune system and enhance blood circulation and digestion (dependent variables). 3. Empirical Hypothesis An empirical hypothesis is also called as the “working hypothesis.” It is presumed to explain certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It comes to life when a theory is being put to the test, using observation and experiment. From the name itself “working,” it would mean that it can be changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer supported or accepted base on the observation and experimentation being done. It is going through some trial and error and perhaps changing around those independent variables. Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than plants watered once a week. (Here, trial and error are leading to a series of findings). 4. Logical hypothesis Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with limited evidence that can be verified logically. It reflects a relationship of the variables which anchored based on logical phenomena. Sometimes, a logical hypothesis can be turned into an empirical hypothesis in which you have to test your theories and postulates. Ex: Tomato plants bear fruit faster in Earth than in Moon. (Until we are can test the soil and plant growth in Moon's ground, the evidence for this claim will be limited, and the hypothesis will only remain logical). 5. Statistical hypothesis A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a portion of a population. It can be verified statistically. The variables in a statistical hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to assess it statistically. Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial development of K-3 pupils of the private and public schools in the city, you would want to examine every single K-3 pupil in the city. It is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis or a sample of the K-3 pupil population. 6. Null hypothesis The null hypothesis is denoted with the symbol Ho It exists when you consider that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables or that there is an insufficient amount of information to claim a scientific hypothesis. Ex: There is no significant change in my health, whether I exercise every day or not. 7. Alternative hypothesis An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the symbol (H a). It is an alternate statement expressed to be tested in order to generate the desired output when the empirical or working hypothesis is not accepted. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, you tend to seek an alternative hypothesis. Ex: My health improves during the times when I sleep 8 hours a day than sleeping for 4 hours only.  A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis Directional Hypothesis The directional hypothesis relates the relationship between the variables and can also predict its nature. It illustrates the direct association of the impact of the independent variable with the dependent variable, whether it is positively or negatively affected. The direction of the statement should be clear and justified according to the findings of the study. Since the hypothesis is gearing to one specific direction it is investigated through a one-tailed test. Ex: Students who are eating nutritious food have higher grades than students not having a proper meal. (This shows that there is an effect between the grades and nutritious food and the direction of effect is clear that the students got a higher grade). Non-directional Hypothesis A non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no principle involved. It is a premise that a relationship exists between two variables. However, the direction of the effect is not specifically determined. It is a statement that reflects the association of the independent variable to the dependent variable without predicting the exact nature of the direction of the relationship.This relationship is not specified as negative or positive. The hypothesis, in this case, is investigated through a two-tailed test. Ex: There is a significant difference in the average grades between those students that have proper nutritious meal and those that do not have proper meals. (This depicts that there is an effect between the average grades and nutritious food, but it does not reflect the direction of the effect whether it is positively or negatively affected). Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis These guidelines must be observed in formulating your hypothesis. 1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend more time researching about the topic you are interested in. Focus on information and previous studies related to your topic. 2. Your independent variable and dependent variable must be included in your hypothesis. 3. The relationship of your variables must be reflected in your hypothesis. Will your independent variable affects your dependent variable? 4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as possible. If your hypothesis is vague and complicated, it would be difficult to find the answer to your question. 5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises clear and simple language. Make it short and simple for it to be easily understood and avoid any misconceptions or misunderstandings. 18  6. Your hypothesis should be testable without violating ethical standards. It means that it could be investigated and measured through a scientific methods such as statistical analysis and data interpretation. 7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that your hypothesis can be proven wrong through experiments or empirical data. There are no absolute answers to research questions, but there is a possibility of validating the hypotheses to be true beyond a reasonable doubt. LESSON 4: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of research. It evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the relevant previous studies conducted on a specified topic. It is also design to justify your research by exposing the gaps of the previous studies. It is vital that your literature review is centralized. Thus, you should choose studies that are focused to your topic rather than collecting a broader scope of studies which are already not relevant to your research. Moreover, literature review is an essential component of research. It forms a "picture" for the reader, providing a support and full comprehension of the developments in the field. This picture tells the reader that you have acknowledged, considered and adapted previous related significant works in the field into your research. Literature review plays a significant impact in the discussion of the results and findings. The discussion of results and findings should focus on your research rather than those of the other previous researches. Hence, the literature review should be used only in the discussion as support, evidence, and further explanation for your study. These are the three (3) ways of using literature review in the discussion of your study: a) providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas, b) comparing your findings from other previous related studies, and c) stating what contribution your study has made in the field. However, there are also three (3) common errors that are usually made when including literature reviews in the discussion of the study. First, there are wide range of studies being included in which most of them are not anymore relevant to your specific topic under investigation. Second, stating the related article mentioning the original article rather than citing the original article itself. Lastly, previous work has been cited by the researcher based only on the abstracts and without even reading the entire research. Purpose of a literature review The review of related literature is anchored to the following purposes. 1. To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of knowledge and to the real-life situations. 23  2. To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your research study and learn from them. 3. To determine the relationship of your research with previous research studies to prevent duplication and to acknowledge other researchers. 4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research questions. 5. To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study. 6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from other researches which might help you in formulating and justifying your research ideas. 7. To clarify misconceptions on previous researches and help refocus, polish, and contribute to the development of the body of knowledge. Structure of Literature Review This is how you are going to structure your review of related literature. The main goal for doing this is to make the reader understand easily the different studies and how they are relevant to your study. 1. Introduction The introduction somehow presents the fundamental idea of the particular study of the literature review. 2. Main Body The main body is consists of the organized discussion of sources. This is where you summarize and synthesize your literature review and reflect how they related to your study. 3. Conclusions/Recommendations Conclusion and recommendation emphasized what you have learned from reviewing the literature and where would your study leads to. Types of Literature Review These are the different types of literature review depending on how you organize and present your review of related studies. 1. Context review From the name itself, context review is primarily focused on the content or contextual aspect of research. Usually it is a type of review in which the researcher relates his or her study to a larger body of knowledge. It presents the current research by merging it into a wider framework and determine its contribution and impact to the specific field of study. 2. Historical review Historical review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher organizes the related researches according to the period of time it was conducted. Historical literature review focuses on probing research in a specified field throughout a chronological order, which usually starts from the oldest period of time  going to the most recent studies. The goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge on the advancement of technology and to identify developments on certain areas, which progress through time. It can be integrated with a theoretical or methodological review to illustrate how a concept, theory, or research method developed through time. 3. Integrative review Integrative review is a common type of literature review in which the researcher introduces and summarizes the recent knowledge of the study. It emphasizes the agreements and disagreements of knowledge among various previous researches. It also considers reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature in an integrated way in order to generate new structure and viewpoint on the topic. This is the most common form of literature review in the social sciences. This review is usually merge with a context review. 4. Methodological review Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher gathers and compares and contrast other studies to the current research. It basically summarizes and evaluates the strengths and gaps in methodological aspects of various studies and illustrates the effects of different methodologies (research designs, samples, process) to different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes ethical issues when necessary, which you should consider and be conscious of as you go through your current research. 5. Self-study review Self-study review is a literature review in which the researcher demonstrates his or her understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It contains existing proof associated to a clearly stated research questions and uses standardized methods to determine and evaluate relevant research. However, it can also produce problems of prejudice especially when it is used to summarize claims or statements linking his or her findings to a system of knowledge. Typically, it is a practice in the educational program or course requirement. 6. Theoretical review Theoretical review is a literature review in which the researcher introduces several theories or concepts that are focused on a specific topic. It is particular on the theories and concepts being highlighted on other researches and compare them to the current study basing on its framework, hypothesis, consistency, and justification. The theoretical literature review aids in establishing the theories already existed, the relationships of theories among various studies, the degree of its investigation, and the development of new hypotheses. Type of Sources for a Literature Review In doing a literature review, researchers must be acquainted with the three (3) basic types of sources which are the general references, primary and secondary sources. General references are sources in which a researcher refers to tract down other sources. Primary sources are publications in which a researcher accounts the findings of his or her investigations. Most primary sources are found in journal articles.  Secondary sources are publications in which a researcher considers the work of others. Where can you find review of related literature? As a researcher, you can find information about the research studies in numerous formats such as books, scholarly journal articles, dissertations, government documents, policy reports, and periodicals. Most researchers are also presenting their findings during meetings, congress, and conventions of professional societies and organizations. 1. Books Books convey many forms of information. The needed information here is from the books containing a collection of research materials and articles. You can find citation information on them such as the title, author, date, and publisher in the catalog system. 2. Scholarly Journals Scholarly journals may also be referred to as academic journals or peer- reviewed journals. They are filled with peer-reviewed information of research. Articles are written by a scholar in the field and the researcher is always identified. List of the sources of the information like footnotes, endnotes, and bibliography is always included. Typically, they contain an advance terminologies since the researcher uses technical language in their field of study. The researcher assumes that the reader has a background and basic understanding in the field of research. 3. Dissertations Dissertation is a final requirement for the degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) in which the student or researcher has to complete a work of original research. Some dissertations are eventually published as books or articles which take into account its findings and contribution to the academic discipline. Since dissertations are original research, they can be a source of valuable information. 4. Government Documents Most of the government agencies around the world support research undertakings and publish the findings of the study. Government documents are usually kept at the government and some school libraries. These documents are rarely found in the catalog system. Assistance from the librarian is needed for you to be able to locate these documents since it is considered as specialized publications. 5. Policy Reports and Presented Papers Policy reports are also a source of information in literature review. Policy papers are not like the typical research papers. Usually they are discussed to non-academic readers. They may initiate by identifying an issue or phenomenon that usually claim an answer and they are focused on being persuasive. Moreover, policy papers are written proficiently and most of the readers does not want to read a book due to limited time. Generally, they are supplemented by policy briefs which summarize the papers.  6. Periodicals Periodicals are findings of the study which can be seen in newspapers, in popular magazines, on television or radio broadcasts, and in Internet news summaries. They are the chosen edited summaries done by journalists for the general readers. They are deficient in numerous vital details that are require to critically evaluate the study. Therefore, it is essential to supplement these information with other sources. Steps in Writing Literature Review 1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature There are many ways on how to find relevant research studies. You may use the following: a. Search engines to facilitate your information inquiry. Make sure that they are reliable. b. University online library c. Snowballing d. Related dissertations 2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize After searching and gathering the different relevant studies, you need to arrange them in order for you to organize them easily. a. Log the reference information. You may use reference management software. b. Catalogue all relevant articles. You may use excel so that it will be organize and systematic. You can make your own template so that you will be efficient. c. Digest and synthesize. Organize the different ideas from different sources. Arrange them according to the criteria that you made in your excel template. This would make the connections of the different studies easier to identify. 3. Outlining and Writing Up In-depth planning and enough time should be given importance during this period since you will need to concentrate and have focus in writing up your paper. a. Draw up your outline. You need to make an outline first for the structuring of your literature review. Thorough reading and understanding should be done for you to be able to plan and structure the ideas from your different sources. You can use the different approaches like chronological, thematic, theoretical, etc. b. Write it up. After formulating the outline, you can now begin writing your first draft. It is expected that your first draft is still rough. Your second draft involves tightening up and improving the flow. There would be several drafts needed for your paper to be polished. c. Recap. When you are finish with your paper, have it read by others who are qualified (expert in the field) for further improvements. Comprehend and incorporate their corrections and suggestions for the betterment of your study. It is so much better if there will be more qualified people that can proof-read your paper. In-text Citation and Referencing Styles Citation is a reference to a literature being used in your study. It is a way of giving acknowledgement to the authors whom you have referred their intellectual works and creativity as a support or foundation of your research. Typically, citations include author’s name, date, publisher information, journal information and/or DOI (Digital Objective Identifier) if present. From the name itself, an in-text citation is a reference made within the body of text in the paper. It leads the reader to a source where a particular information has been taken of. An in-text citation should be reflected when you refer, paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another author. A corresponding reference list must be provided at the end of the study as references or bibliography. A references typically includes only the sources that you have mentioned or cited in- text in your paper, while a bibliography, is generally a list of all the sources you used to generate your ideas about your research even if you have not mentioned or cited them in your paper. There are different citing and referencing styles that are being used depending on the specific requirements of different filed of disciplines. Please refer to your Practical Research 1 (PR1).