PPGC Modules PDF

WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE human understanding of the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for AGENDA: interpreting...

WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE human understanding of the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for AGENDA: interpreting politically meaningful phenomena. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS Political Science deals with the systematic study of THE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL political structures, political processes, and political behavior. SCIENCE IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND The study of politics: political science GOVERNMENT Traditional approach MEANING OF GOVERNANCE APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS GOVERNANCE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF The traditional approach to the study of political science DIFFERENT POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND is a combination of views on and orientations to politics INSTITUTIONS in philosophical, ethical, and institutional terms. “Politics exists because people disagree about the The behavioral approach to political science mainly aims and objects of human endeavor and, probably emphasizes on scientific, objective, and value-free even more so, about the methods to be used in study of political phenomenon. achieving them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book, The Nature of Politics and Government. Philosophical Approach NATURE OF POLITICS This approach firmly believes that values cannot be separated from the study of politics and political “A disagreement in which incompatible policies are systems. Therefore, its main concern is to judge what advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side is good or bad in any political society. obtaining the power to make its viewpoint prevail over the other. Various forms of the traditional approach: The acquisition of power, therefore, is a prerequisite of Institutional Approach: This approach is achieving political objectives.” concerned with the study of formal structures and institutions like legislature, executive, Thus, is the nature of politics. judiciary, political parties, etc. B. PONTON & P. GILL Historical Approach: It emphasizes the study of the history of every political reality to analyze Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire greater control over the any situation. situation. Legal Approach: This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies or AMABLE TUIBEO institutions, justice, and independence of Politics is the strategy for maintaining cooperation judiciary. among people with different needs and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is a family, a tribe, a village, or a nation-state. CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIORAL HAROLD LASSWELL APPROACH: Regularities: Believes that there are certain Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936) author of a major study of the distributive consequences of political uniformities in political behavior which can be activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets expressed in generalizations or theories to What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined explain and predict political phenomena. "politics" as involving questions as to "who gets what, Techniques: Emphasizes the use of research when, and how." tools and methods which generate valid, DEFINITION OF POLITICS reliable, and comparative data. Verification: Emphasizes testing and verifying Political science is a classical discipline that deals with the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to deepen everything. According to behaviorists, what cannot be verified is not scientific.  Quantification: After collecting data, the Rule of Law: It is through the law that people researcher should measure and quantify it. express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of the law and not of Values: Believe that to do objective research one has men is an underlying democratic principle that to be value-free. puts no one, however rich and powerful, above Systematization: Research in Political Science must the law. be systematic. Theory and research should go Effectiveness & Efficiency: Effectiveness together. (meeting the needs) and efficiency (proper Pure Science: Believes that the study of Political utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for Science should be verified by evidence. the community. Integration: Political Science should not be separated Transparency: People must be open to from various other social sciences like history, information regarding the decision-making sociology, and economics, etc. process and its implementation. It also means Importance of Politics and Government: that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible to the 1. It is very important to care about politics public. because you should know what is going on around you. Responsiveness: The interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and 2. Another reason you should care about politics appropriate manner so that each of them can is because you should have a say in what will appreciate and take part in the process of happen. governance. 3. You should care about politics because the Equity & Inclusiveness: All members of decisions people make will affect many lives. society, especially the most vulnerable ones or those at the grassroots level, must be taken into Bertolt Brecht consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a “The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he doesn’t stake in society, and no one should feel hear, doesn’t speak, nor participates in political events. alienated from it. He doesn’t know the cost of living, the price of the bean, Consensus Oriented: Governance is of the fish, of the flour, the rent, the shoes, and of the consensus-oriented when decisions are made medicine, all depend on political decisions. The political after taking into consideration the different illiterate is so stupid that he is proud and swells his viewpoints of the actors in society. To reach a chest saying that he hates politics. The imbecile doesn’t consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible know that, from his political ignorance is born the mediation structure must be established. prostitute, the abandoned child, and the worst thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and flunky of the Accountability: It means answerability or national and multinational companies.” responsibility for one’s actions. The actors have an obligation to explain and be accountable for GOVERNANCE the consequences of the decisions and actions The word “governance” came from the Latin verb they have taken on behalf of the community “gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word they serve. “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society wield power and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect human and institutional interactions and economic and social development. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE Participation: Good governance essentially requires the participation of different sectors of society. Participation means the active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making process. The State Sovereignty: the supreme power to command and enforce obedience, the power to which, legally speaking, all The modern term "state" is derived from the word interests subdue and all wills subordinate. "status". It was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) who first used the term "state" in his writings. His significant work is titled as "The Prince". There are two aspects of sovereignty: The state is the most universal and most powerful of all institutions. 1. Internal sovereignty is the supreme or absolute power of a state to enforce its will on the people within its territory; A State is a community of persons, more or less numerous, and permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing an 2. External sovereignty refers to the independence of a organized government to which the great body of state from control by any other state. inhabitants render habitual obedience. Based on this definition, what are the elements of a state? Sec. 1, Art. II, 1987 Constitution The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Elements of the State Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. Democratic, the power lies 1. PEOPLE on the people. People: refers to the inhabitants or population of a particular territory. 4. GOVERNMENT No specific number required; but must be able to sufficient to sustain the state There can be no state without government. Government The people that make up a state are usually called is the agency to which the will of the state is formulated, as the nation or nations expressed, and carried out. Government: an institution or aggregate of institutions by 2. TERRITORY which an independent society makes and carries out those rules of action necessary to enable men to live in a social Territory: a definite portion of the surface of the earth which state, or that which are imposed upon the people by those is the subject of the jurisdiction and sovereign rights of a who possess the power or authority of prescribing them. state accordance with the international law. 3 branches of government - Constitution The territorial domains are: 1. Legislative (makes the law) Eg. Congress - Senate - terrestrial (land) House of Representatives fluvial (water) which includes maritime; and. 2. Executive (carries out the law) eg. President - VP yamang dagat, all things within the territory must (Senate Pres on other Country) - Cabinet be used or the people must living inside the territory 3. Judicial (evaluate the law) eg. Supreme Court - benefits from it Other Court aerial (air). Additional: International Recognition Article I, 1987 Constitution: National Territory Recognition then refers to the act, made by the The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, family of nations that renders status. a state its (a composition of islands, an adjective on a place) with all international the islands and waters embraced therein, and all other It has to be a member of the family of nations, that territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty is, nations that recognize each other - UN, ASEAN, (kalayaan and kapangyarihan) or jurisdiction, consisting of SEAN its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its A community may have all the requisites for a state territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, to exist. It may already have its people, a territory, and other submarine areas. The waters around, between, a government and sovereignty, however, until it is and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of recognized, it shall remain to be only a de facto their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal state (they are a state but not yet recognized) waters of the Philippines. Scarborough should is part of the Philippines. The Fundamental Powers of the State: They are inherent in a State, inseparable from its 3. SOVEREIGNTY sovereignty; hence, can be exercised even without being expressly granted in the Constitution or laws. However, the conditions for their exercise can be regulated and limited. 1. Divine Right Theory The three Inherent Power of State The Divine Right Theory holds that the state is of 1. POLICE POWER divine creation and the ruler is ordained by God to Police power is the plenary power vested in the govern the people. Reference has been made by legislature to make, ordain, and establish advocates of this theory to the laws which Moses wholesome and reasonable laws, statutes and received at Mount Sinai. ordinances, not repugnant to the Constitution, for This is the oldest theory concerned in the origin of the good and welfare of the people. state. According to this theory, state is established This power to prescribe regulations to promote the and governed by God himself by agent or vice health, morals, education, good order or safety, and regent or vicar of God. general welfare of the people flows from the recognition that salus populi est suprema lex - the welfare of the people is the supreme law. 2. Necessity or Force Theory Create law (defined as ordinance of reason, Necessity or force theory maintains that the state meaning logical, understandable, promulgated for must have been created as a product of the the common good by the one's in charge of the existence of the strong and the weak in society, and society - gov't) as a result of their struggle against each other Generally exercised by the Congress wherein those who are strong are able to dominate and impose their will upon the weak. The creation of the state through the constant war and invasion of the great warriors in the ancient 2. EMINENT DOMAIN time dominated the weak and later on formed a Eminent Domain: the power of the nation or a state. sovereign state to take, or to authorize the taking 3. Natural or Instinctive Theory of, private property for a public use without the owner's consent, conditioned upon payment of just The Natural or Instinctive Theory holds that the compensation. state is founded out of man's natural instinct for "An inherent political right, founded on a common association. The social urge of the human being to necessity and interest of appropriating the property be within a group of people in the community as in of individual members of the community to the sociology describes that "man is a social being." great necessities of the whole community.” The social group provides the political development Like Acquire a piece of land for PUBLIC USE. Like to stay and work together with common goal in the road widening, housing community and later on transforms into a state. 4. Patriarchal Theory 3. TAXATION The Patriarchal theory attributes the origin of states It is the power by which the State raises revenue to to the enlargement of the family which remained defray the necessary expenses of the Government. under the authority of the father or mother. It is the enforced proportional contributions from Family ➡Clan ➡ Tribe ➡ Nation ➡State persons and property, levied by the State by virtue of its sovereignty, for the support of the 5. Social Contract Theory government and for all public needs. Social contract theory asserts that the early states Basis: Lifeblood Doctrine must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary "The existence of government is a necessity; that compact among the people to form a society and government cannot continue without means to pay organize government for their common good. its expenses; and that for these means it has a right This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt to compel its citizens and property within its limits against a bad ruler. to contribute. 6. Economic Theory It believes that the state must have been founded Theories on the Origin of the State to take charge of man's various needs that must be There are several theories that attempt to explain continuously and consistently satisfied. the origin of the state, but no single theory offers an 7. Historical or Evolutionary Theory adequate explanation. This theory is more scientific. These theories have been formed and developed as The Historical or Evolutionary theory explains that a result of the political thought and philosophy in "the state is the product of growth, a slow and the ancient time until the Enlightenment period in steady evolution extending over a long period of Europe. time and ultimately shaping itself into the complex Enlightenment period - transition from Medieval to structure of a modern state." Modernism. Separation of the State and the Church. Starting point of revolution.  The state is not a mere artificial mechanical creation but an institution of natural growth or historical In Social Science and Politics, Power is the ability to evolution influence or outright control the behavior of people. It is authority when the power is perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power may also be seen as evil or is nation and state synonymous with each other? unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as The Nation reserved only to humans as social beings. A nation is a society of inhabitants of a specific B. NATIONAL POWER: DIMENSIONS, FEATURES geographic region united and bound together by a AND EXERCISE common racial ancestry, the same language and culture, historical past, laws and a shared interests and sentiments over the passing of many years. National Power is that “combination of power and capability of a state which the state uses for fulfilling its national interests and goals” according to Paddleford - State is Political concept vs Nation is an ethnic or and Lincoln. To Hartman, national power denotes the racial concept (culture) ability of a nation to fulfil national goals, how much - A state is not subject to external control vs A nation powerful or weak a particular nation in securing them. may or may not be independent of external control. - A state cannot become a state without a nation or National Power is simply the ability or capability of a nations that consists its people. Vs. A nation is a nation whether or not a state exists. nation to secure the goals and objectives of its national - A single state may consist of one or more nations or interests in relation with other nations. It involves the peoples vs. A single nation may be made up of capacity to use force or threat of use of force or different states influence over others for securing the goals of national interest. In this way, we can define National Power as “the ability to control the behavior of other states in WEEK 3: POLITICAL POWER accordance with one’s own will.” National Power is the TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION PPGC111 currency of international relations. A. MEANING AND NATURE OF POWER NATURE OF NATIONAL POWER Power may be explained in different ways because its For understanding the nature of National Power let us meaning is within the context of human relations. We know the meaning of the terms ‘National’ and ‘Power’: are encountered with many different explanations in various disciplines. Even within a single social NATIONAL: discipline, power is defined in several different ways. National means pertaining to the nation making Some social scientists define it as the use of national power the power of a nation. However, in the force whereas many others explain it as the context of national power the term ‘nation’ does not capacity to secure the desired goals through the mean the same as in Political Science. In the context of use of force or threat of use of force or even by national powers, nation stands for the power of the exercising influence. group of decision makers and authorities who exercise According to Morgenthau “Power is the power power on behalf of the nation. It is the power of the of man on others” and as a “man’s control over decision-makers who formulate and implement the the minds and actions of other men.” foreign policy of the nation and thereby attempt to Another definition is from Schwarzenberger secure national goals. who view power as “the capacity of one to impose his will on others by reliance on effective National Power does not mean the power of the entire sanctions in case of non-compliance.” population of the state. It is only a psychological link Charles P. Schleicher defines power as “the that makes the people regard the power of the decision- ability to exercise such control as to make makers as their own power. others do what they otherwise would not do by rewarding or promising to reward them, or by POWER: depriving or threatening to deprive them of something they value.” For understanding the nature of power in the context of National Power, it is necessary to distinguish between Based on these definitions, we can say that power in Power and Force, and Power and Influence. the context of human relations is the capacity and ability to secure a desired and intended effect or gain through the use of force, influence and sanctions. Power and Force: Force means physical force, violence in the form of terms of a nation’s ability to secure its goals and police action, imprisonment, punishment or war. Power objectives in international relations. means a psychological relationship of control which is backed by the use of force, or threat of use of force. 3. National Power is Dynamic and Relative in When physical force, war and other means involving Character: the use of military power or police power are actually National power is always relative to time and resources. used to secure certain objectives, power stands The power of a nation has to be analyzed both through replaced by force. an analysis of the capabilities and ability of the nation as well as by a comparison of its national power with Power and Influence: other nations. Both involve the ability to produce an intended change or effect in the behavior of others. However, the two are National Power has a non-stable, dynamic character not the same. Power involves a use of force or threat and as such it has to be continuously or at least of use of force. Political Power or Legal Power is periodically and regularly evaluated for understanding backed by authority or sovereignty of the state. the role of the nation in international relations. National power is always dynamic. A powerful nation can Influence involves the attempt to change the behavior become less powerful or more powerful in future. of others through persuasion and not by threats or force. The scope of influence is wider than the scope of This depends upon the changes in the power potential power and it is more democratic than power. of other nations as well as upon the various components of national power. The power of a nation 8 MAIN FEATURES OF NATIONAL POWER: is always relative to the powers of other nations, particularly the power of its adversaries. In 1990, the National Power has a non-stable, dynamic character collapse of the USSR and decline in the Russian power and as such it has to be continuously or at least acted as a source of increase in the US power in periodically and regularly evaluated for understanding international relations. the role of the nation in international relations. National power is always dynamic. A powerful nation can 4. No Two Nations Have Equal Power: become less powerful or more powerful in future. Further, it must be noted that no two nations have or can have absolutely equal power. There can be only a The Most Important Features of National Power in rough equality between two equally powerful super Politics: powers or great powers or major powers. The power of a nation is always more or less than the power of every 1. National Power Is both a Means as well as an other nation. End in International Relations: National Power is the means to control the behavior of other states with a view to accomplish certain ends. It is recognized as the currency with which a nation can 5. There Are Several Elements of National Power: secure the desired values—peace, security, progress, National power is often analyzed and evaluated in development, status, and more power. Nations use terms of the capabilities of a nation which are power to secure their interests in international relations. determined on the basis of several factors, like This makes power a means in relations among nations. Geography, Population, Industrial Capacity, Diplomacy, Military Preparedness, Quality of However, in actual practice power is pursued as an Leadership and Government etc. All these factors have objective or as an end. Nations want power not only for to be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively for their immediate but also for their future needs. They, evaluating the national power of a nation. therefore, always try to build up a reserve of power and hence pursue power as an end. Thus, power like 6. Actual Power and Potential Power: money is a means but it is mostly pursued as an end. Moreover, the attempt to analyze the power of a nation must focus both on the analysis of actual power as well 2. National Power is the Ability to Secure Goals of as potential power of a nation. Actual power is the National Interest: power which is immediately available, whereas National Power is the ability or capacity of a nation to potential power is the power that can be generated in influence or change the behavior of other nations with situations of crisis and times of need. It refers to the a view to secure the goals of its national interest. It is a crisis- management ability as well as the possible relationship in which a powerful nation is in a position availability of power in the years to come. to achieve its desired goals of national interest in international relations. National Power is measured in 7. National Power is the Currency of International Relations: Each nation seeks to use its power for securing its While evaluating military power of a nation we have to national interests in international relations. It is this take into account the other two forms (Economic Power feature which makes international relations regarded as and Psychological Power) of national power, the a process of struggle for power. The nature of this elements of military power and the military power of struggle for power can be analyzed only through an other nations. USA is a super power and is a formidable analysis of the national powers of various nations. The military power. Japan and Germany are big economic role a nation is playing or can play in international powers but are not recognized even as great powers relations can be judged by evaluating its national because they are weak military powers. Russia, the power. successor state of former USSR is a nuclear power but In fact, the greatest of all the national interests of a not a super power because of its economic weakness. nation is to maintain and increase its national power. It China is a big military power but is not recognized as a is the means for the fulfillment of the needs and super power. aspirations of a nation. 2. Economic Power: 8. National Power is the Basis as Well as a Means Economic power is the second important dimension of of Foreign Policy: national power. It is constituted by the ability of a nation National Power is the very basis of the foreign policy of to satisfy its own needs and to control the behavior of a nation, and foreign policy can be effective in securing other states by affording or denying access to the goals of national interest when there is adequate economic goods and services. The economic means of national power. The ability of the statesmen and foreign policy are today the most vital means which a diplomats to act and react with others is again state can use for influencing the actions and behavior determined by their respective national power of other states. No state can become a military power without having adequate economic power. DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL POWER: According to Palmer and Perkins, economic power is The three forms of national power are inseparable from inseparable from military power, for it is one of its basic each other. Without economic power no nation can components, but even under conditions of modern develop her military power, and without the latter no warfare, economic power and military power are not the nation can play an active role in international relations. same. Psychological power can be enduringly and really effective only when it is backed by economic and Economic power is used by rich and developed nations military power. to influence other states by granting them economic aid and loans, and try to secure their interests in The Major Dimensions of National Power in international relations. It is used as a means to induce International Politics as well as to coerce a desired change in the behavior of other states. 1. Military Power: Military power is an important dimension of national In present times, it has come to be recognized as even power. It is regarded as absolutely essential for more important form of national power than military achieving the objective of security of the nation. For power as in the case of Japan. Lack of economic power every nation, security is the most vital element of its is a basic factor behind the weak power positions of the national interest. It is the primary concern of every Third World countries. nation to work for her security. While evaluating the economic power of a nation one The possibility of violation of security of a nation has to take into account such factors as raw materials, through war and aggression by other nations is always natural resources, food stocks, industrial and considered as a distinct possibility and hence every technological capacity, G.N.P., trade surplus, means of nation gives first priority to her security. For keeping her transport and communication, GDP, GDP per capita security against possible violations, each nation etc. However, economic power of a nation when not maintains an army. Military power is regarded as the backed by military power and psychological power is key means for securing the security and territorial not very effective in international relations. integrity of each nation. 3. Psychological Power: Military power is as such a vital part of national power. Psychological power means the power of opinion and The role and importance of a state in international image of the nation. The role of propaganda and relations depends upon its military power. No state can persuasive negotiations in international relations have get recognition as a super power without being militarily been used by the states for securing an intended superior. change in the behavior of other states. The improvement in the means of communications, The offering of rewards can be material or economic or increased influence of mass media, social media and psychological. A nation can give material help to public opinion on foreign policy, the emergence of open another nation in times of crisis or in other ways. The and conference diplomacy, the popularity of alternative practice of giving economic aid and easy loans or ideologies, the role of NGOs and social movements, grants-in-aid is another method of winning support and and the increased role of propaganda and publicity in inducing a change in the behavior of other states. international relations, have all increased the role of this dimension of National Power. The token support or grant of certain honors to the statesmen, philosophers, artists, scientists and By the use of psychological and cultural means a nation scholars of other nations also serve as psychological always tries to influence the people and leaders of other rewards intended to keep the other states friendly and nations. The ability to influence others through cooperative. systematic publicity and educational and cultural relations constitutes the psychological part of the The lease of territories or a military bases or national power of a nation. equipment—industrial or military, transit and trade facilities and grant of right to allow passage of ships are The Interdependence of the Three Dimensions of some of the other forms of rewards which a state can National Power: offer to other states for securing a desired change in their behaviors. The three forms of national power are inseparable. Without economic power no nation can develop her 3. Punishment: military power, and without the latter no nation can play A powerful nation can inflict punishment on an an active role in international relations. Psychological offending or unhelpful state by imposing economic power can be enduring and really effective with sanctions or norms or policies or placing trade economic and military power. Thus, psychological restrictions or ensuring a denial of a possible reward. power is a valuable and important part of national Denial or reduction in foreign aid or loan or refusal to power. The nature and scope of National Power can be export certain items or technology can be used by a evaluated only by evaluating all these three highly powerful nation for inflicting a punishment or pressure related and interdependent dimensions of National on other nations. Power. Thus, punishment can be used by a powerful nation for METHODS OF EXERCISING NATIONAL POWER: exercising its power over other states. In actual practice the powerful nations use threat of punishment as a Each nation uses its national power for securing its method and refrain from actual imposition of national interests, and goals of foreign policy. It is used punishment. The recourse to punishment can cause a by the nation through four basic means Persuasion, reaction and thus harm the interest of the state Rewards, Punishment and Force. resorting to punishment as a method of exercising its power. 1. Persuasion: The art of persuasion consists in defining and logically The most effective punishment is the one which explaining a particular problem or issue or dispute to secures the desired objective of a state without the other nations or any other nation. An attempt is made actual infliction of punishment on other states. Threat of to persuade other nations to adopt a particular and punishment is a better method of exercise of national desired view or perception of the nature of issues power than its actual infliction. involved in any bilateral or multilateral problem or dispute or issue. The attempt is to convince others 4. Force or Physical Violence: about goodness of the policies of the nation. Diplomacy By the use of military power or physical force, a basically uses persuasion to secure support for the powerful nation can compel a desired behavior of foreign policy that it represents. another nation. As a method of exercising power, force is related to punishment. Persuasion is widely used by diplomats and statesmen When punitive action is taken against another nation, it for securing the desired and defined objectives of the becomes a case of use of force. However, when only foreign policy. But success in persuasion can be threat of punitive action is given without the actual use achieved only when it is supplemented by other of physical violence against the other state, it becomes methods and when it is supported by a strong national a case of exercise of power through the use of power and effective foreign policy. punishment. As such the difference between force and punishment is in the actual use of force versus the 2. Rewards: threat of use of force. Physical force or violence can be used by resorting to b) The second reason, individuals enjoy war or acts of reprisals by a powerful state. Resort to traditional authority as more religious: war is the extreme form of exercise of force in their societies believe they are anointed international relation. It is a risky and dangerous by God or the gods, depending on the method, which can damage the national power of the society’s religious beliefs, to lead their state which resorts to war. This consideration makes society. the resort to war as a method of last resort. Traditional authority is legitimated by the C. TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY; sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to rule Max Weber identified and explained three distinct types are passed down, often through heredity. It of authority: does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and At the next page inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In fact, Weber states: “The creation of new law NATURE AND DEFINITION OF AUTHORITY: opposite traditional norms is deemed impossible in principle.” Traditional authority is Authority is “the right or the capacity or both to have typically embodied in feudalism or proposals or prescriptions or instructions accepted patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal structure, without recourse to persuasion, bargaining or force”. “the servants are completely and personally Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics defines authority dependent upon the lord”, while in an estate as “the power or right to give orders and enforce system (i.e., feudalism), “the servants are not obedience, the power to influence others based on personal servants of the lord but independent recognized knowledge or expertise.” men” (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system of authority does not change or evolve. “Authority can most simply be defined as legitimate power. Authority is, therefore, based on an 2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY: acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of Charismatic authority stems from an individual’s coercion or manipulation. In this sense authority is extraordinary personal qualities and from that power cloaked in legitimacy or rightfulness”. individual’s hold over followers because of these qualities. Such charismatic individuals Weber’s Classification of Authority: may exercise authority over a whole society or only a specific group within a larger society. Max Weber, the doyen (highly respected person) of sociology, has classified authority on the basis of They can exercise authority for good and for legitimacy. Authority’s claim to do something and to bad, as this brief list of charismatic leaders demand allegiance from the citizens are based on indicates: Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma arguments which Weber calls legitimacy. Needless to Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Jesus Christ, say, that Weber uses the term legitimacy in the light of Muhammad, and Buddha. Each of these greater and wider perspective. individuals had extraordinary personal qualities that led their followers to admire them and to There are three types of authority. The first is traditional follow their orders or requests for action. authority. Second is charismatic authority and the third is legal-rational authority. This classification, though not Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose a fool proof one, is still recognized and accepted by mission and vision inspire others. It is based majority of the people. upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. Weber saw a 1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY: charismatic leader as the head of a new social Traditional authority is power that is rooted in movement, and one instilled with divine or traditional, or long-standing, beliefs and supernatural powers, such as a religious practices of a society. prophet. Weber seemed to favor charismatic It exists and is assigned to particular individuals authority, and spent a good deal of time because of that society’s customs and discussing it. In a study of charisma and traditions. Individuals enjoy traditional authority religion, Martin Riesebrodt (1999), a German- for at least one of two reasons. American professor of sociology and politics, a) The first is inheritance, as certain argues that Weber also thought charisma individuals are granted traditional played a strong, if not integral, role in traditional authority because they are the children authority systems. Thus, Weber’s favor for or other relatives of people who already charismatic authority was particularly strong, exercise traditional authority. especially in focusing on what happened to it  with the death or decline of a charismatic leader. 3. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY Legal-Rational authority derives from law and is based on a belief in the legitimacy of a society’s laws and rules and in the right of leaders to act under these rules to make decisions and set policy. This form of authority is a hallmark of modern democracies, where power is given to people elected by voters, and the rules for wielding that power are usually set forth in a constitution, a charter, or another written document. Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience is not given to a specific individual leader - whether traditional or charismatic - but a set of uniform principles. Weber thought the best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy (political or economic). This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations. In fact, Weber stated that the “development of the modern state is identical indeed with that of modern officialdom and bureaucratic organizations just as the development of modern capitalism is identical with the increasing bureaucratization of economic enterprise (Weber 1958, 3). Max Weber identified and explained three distinct types of authority: WEBER’S THREE TYPES OF AUTHORITY TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC LEGAL-RATIONAL Legitimized by long- Based on a leader’s Authority resides in the SOURCE OF POWER standing customs personal qualities office, not in the person LEADERSHIP STYLE Historic personality Dynamic personality Bureaucratic officials Napoleon, Jesus Christ, Patriarchy (traditional EXAMPLE Mother Teresa, Pres. Rodrigo Duterte positions of authority) Mahatma Gandhi WEEK 4: THE GOVERNMENT individuals. It is obvious that without an organized structure of government, anarchy and disorder, and a A. CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS general feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail in Attempts to produce a classification of political society, progress and development will not be possible, institutions can be dated back to the beginnings of the and values taken for granted in a free modern society study of political science. Aristotle made one of the such as truth, freedom, justice, equality, rule of law, and earliest attempts to classify government structures. He human dignity can never be enjoyed. The need for distinguished between states ruled by one person, by government is so apparent that even the most primitive the few and the many- monarchy, aristocracy and societies, history shows, had some form of it. mixed government. His intention was not only to describe but to evaluate and thus he extended his 1. As to The Number of Persons Exercising classification scheme to their 'perverted' forms, which Sovereign Power he labelled tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. He realized, however, that these types did not exist in their WHO RULES? NONE ONE FEW ALL pure forms, thus noting that classification in political Anarchy Monarchy Aristocracy Democracy science is a search for 'ideal' types. Tyranny Oligarchy Direct Dictatorship Representative Charles baron de Montesquieu, a French philosopher of the eighteenth century, produced one of the most Monarchy is a government in which supreme famous schemes of classifying governments: 'There and final authority is in the hands of a single are three species of government: republican, person. monarchical and despotic.' Montesquieu's a) Absolute Monarchy is a government in which classification differed from Aristotle's in that aristocracy the ruler rules by divine right and democracy were part of his republican type of b) Limited Monarchy is a government in which government, but his categorization was firmly in the the ruler rules in accordance with the classical mold since the type of government depended Constitution on the number of people holding power. Republican Tyranny is an autocratic form of rule in government divides power between the many or the which one individual exercises power few, 'the more an aristocracy border on democracy the without any legal restraint nearer it approaches perfection: and in proportion as it Dictatorship is an authoritarian type of draws towards monarchy, the more it is imperfect'. government where there is absolute Monarchy is a system of government in which power, control by one person. although in the hands of a single person, is regulated Aristocracy is a government in which political by fundamental laws and by the power of other groups power is exercised by few privileged classes in the society. Despotism is the worst form of which is known as aristocracy or oligarchy. In an government since power is in the hands of one man. oligarchy, a small group of people has all the There is in Montesquieu the important recognition of power in the government. the relationship between the type of government and Democracy is a government in which political the type of society. Education, morals, patriotism and power is exercised by a majority of the people. the level of economic equality all help to determine the a) Direct or pure democracy is a government in type of government, and a most important variable is which the will of the state is formulated or the extent of the state's territory: 'A large empire expressed directly and immediately through supposes a despotic authority in the person who the people in a mass meeting or primary governs', a monarchical state possesses moderate assembly. territory, but 'It is natural for a republic to have only a b) Indirect, representative or republican small territory otherwise it cannot long subsist.' democracy is a government in which the will of the state is formulated and expressed Purpose and Necessity of Government. through a relatively small and select body of Government exists and should continue to exist for the persons chosen by the people to act as their benefit- of the people governed. It is necessary for the representatives. protection of society and its members, the security of persons and property, the administration of justice, the 2. As to Extent of Powers Exercised by The Central preservation of the state from external danger, and the or National Government advancement of the physical, economic, social and Unitary Government is a government in which cultural well-being of the people. the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the central or national government. Government exists to do these things which by their very nature, it is better equipped to administer for the public welfare than any private individual or group of  Federal government is a government in which 21. Ochlocracy is a government by mobs the powers of government are divided between 22. Particracy is a government by political parties the national and local governments 23. Patriarchy is a government by fathers 24. Plutocracy is a government by the wealthy 3. As to the Relationship Between the Executive 25. Polyarchy is a government by many people and Legislative Branches of Government 26. Republic is a government by elected officials Parliamentary government is a government in 27. Robocracy is a government by robots which the state confers upon the legislature the 28. Stratocracy is a government by armed forces power to terminate the tenure of office of the real 29. Technocracy is a government by technical executive. Legislatures called parliaments experts operate under a parliamentary system of 30. Tetrarchy is a government by four people government in which the executive is 31. Theocracy is a government by a deity through constitutionally answerable to the parliament. the clergy or by religious law (ex. Frailocracy) Parliaments usually consist of 32. Timocracy is a government by the propertied chambers or houses, and are usually class either bicameral or unicameral. 33. Triumvirate is a government by three people Presidential government is a government in C. POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES: which the state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature as MEANING OF IDEOLOGY regards to tenure to a large extent. A presidential system is a system of government where Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, an executive branch is led by a president who conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, serves as both head of state and head of group or society has. An ideology is less encompassing government. In such a system, this branch exists than the ideas expressed in concepts such as separately from the legislature, to which it is worldview, imaginary and ontology. not responsible and which it cannot, in normal Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant circumstances, dismiss. class of society such as the elite to all members of society as suggested in some Marxist and critical- B. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT theory accounts. In societies that distinguish between 1. Anarchy is the state of having no government. public and private life, every political or economic 2. Adhocracy is a type of organization that tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is operates in opposite fashion to a bureaucracy; propounded as an explicit system of thought. government in unstructured fashion Louis Althusser’s Ideological State Apparatuses (2010) 3. Androcracy or andrarchy is a form of in essence define ideology as “the imaginary relation to government in which the government rulers are the real conditions of existence”. male. 4. Atheocracy is a government where religion is 1. LIBERALISM VS CONSERVATISM forbidden 5. Autarchy is a government by an absolute ruler LIBERALISM 6. Bureaucracy is a government by civil servants 7. Confederacy is a union of sovereign states In the early modern age of the Western world 8. Dyarchy is a government by two; dual monarchy (beginning roughly in the early 1500s and running for 9. Ethnocracy is a form of government by a about 200 years), a number of changes occurred that particular ethnic group led to new ideologies: The European discovery of the 10. Geniocracy is a government of intelligent people Americas, the rise of Protestantism, the beginnings of 11. Gynarchy is a government by women; gynocracy the free-market economy, and the early stages of the 12. Heptarchy is a government by seven people scientific revolution fundamentally altered Europe. 13. Judiciocracy is a government by judges People began developing different ways of thinking to 14. Kakistocracy is a government by the worst take account of these changes. 15. Kleptocracy is a government by thieves Perhaps the most important of the new ideas is 16. Malarchy is a government by bad leaders liberalism (also known as classical liberalism). This 17. Matriarchy is a form of government by women or type of liberalism, which began in England in the 1600s, mothers differs from American liberalism. Classical liberalism 18. Meritocracy is a government by those with merit developed when such thinkers as John Locke (in his 19. Minarchy is a government with the smallest Second Treatise of Government in 1690) rethought the possible size relationship between the individual and society, as well 20. Nomocracy is a government through established theorized about the rights and responsibilities of the laws individual. These ideas formed the foundation for many political systems still operating today. Liberalism prejudiced, and irrational. By ignoring these defects, emphasizes: liberalism becomes unrealistic. Unique circumstances - There is no universal Individualism - The individual takes priority over answer to the problems of society; the society; circumstances are unique in each country. Freedom - Individuals have the right to make choices for themselves. This freedom is not 2. CAPITALISM VS SOCIALISM absolute, and some behaviors, such as murder, are prohibited. Freedom of religion is a CAPITALISM particularly important freedom to come out of liberalism because so many governments at the Capitalism is a political and economic ideology which time were very closely tied to a particular religious states that individuals are free. They are free to make creed; money, own businesses, sell goods and services and crucially own private property. Emphasis within Equality - No person is morally or politically capitalist countries is on the role of individuals rather superior to others. Hierarchies are rejected; than the state. Rationalism - Humans are capable of thinking logically and rationally. Logic and reason help us Capitalism is often thought of as an economic system solve problems; in which private actors own and control property in Progress - Traditions should not be kept unless accord with their interests, and demand and supply they have value. New ideas are helpful because freely set prices in markets in a way that can serve the they can lead to progress in the sciences, the best interests of society. economy, and society; The free market - Liberalism and capitalism go The essential feature of capitalism is the motive to hand in hand. Liberals like the free market make a profit. As Adam Smith, the 18th century because it more easily creates wealth, as philosopher and father of modern economics, said: “It opposed to traditional economies, which often is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, have extensive regulations and limits on which or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their occupations people can hold. regard to their own interest.” Both parties to a voluntary exchange transaction have their own interest in the CONSERVATISM outcome, but neither can obtain what he or she wants without addressing what the other wants. It is this Conservatism (also known as classical conservatism) rational self-interest that can lead to economic began as a reaction against the liberal ideas taking hold prosperity. of Europe during the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century. This type of conservatism differs In a capitalist economy, capital assets—such as from American conservatism. Edmund Burke, a British factories, mines, and railroads—can be privately owned Member of Parliament, observed the early stages of the and controlled, labor is purchased for money wages, French Revolution with great distress and predicted the capital gains accrue to private owners, and prices violence and terror that would ensue. His book, allocate capital and labor between competing uses. Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), is one of the founding texts of classical conservatism. Although some form of capitalism is the basis for nearly all economies today, for much of the last century it was Burke and other conservatives attacked liberalism for but one of two major approaches to economic many reasons. They argued that liberalism destroyed organization. In the other, socialism, the state owns the tradition. In its rush to overturn the old and bring in the means of production, and state-owned enterprises new, liberalism and capitalism ruthlessly attacked seek to maximize social good rather than profits. traditional institutions and beliefs. Conservatism emphasizes: Pillars of Capitalism Stability - Stability is a precious thing, and Capitalism is founded on the following pillars: change must be made gradually in order to preserve private property, which allows people to own it. Undermining stability is very dangerous because tangible assets such as land and houses and societies can easily fall into chaos and violence. intangible assets such as stocks and bonds; Concreteness - Liberalism is too abstract. It self-interest, through which people act in pursuit focuses on freedom and equality, not on the of their own good, without regard for sociopolitical concrete way people live every day, which is the pressure. Nonetheless, these uncoordinated focus of conservatism. individuals end up benefiting society as if, in the Human fallibility - Liberalism overestimates words of Smith’s (1776) Wealth of Nations, they human beings. Humans are frequently ignorant, were guided by an invisible hand;  competition, through firms’ freedom to enter and the position of the working class, both by raising wage exit markets, maximizes social welfare, that is, the levels and by means of various welfare schemes to be joint welfare of both producers and consumers; administered by the state. Fourthly, although it was a market mechanism that determines prices in never frankly acknowledged, another key aim of Social a decentralized manner through interactions Democracy was to raise the Social Democratic between buyers and sellers—prices, in return, politicians and the trade union leaders to the ruling allocate resources, which naturally seek the highest position within society. In effect, these new rulers were reward, not only for goods and services but for expected to administer the system of wages and capital wages as well; accumulation in such a way that it would supposedly freedom to choose with respect to consumption, operate in the interest of the working class. production, and investment—dissatisfied customers can buy different products, investors can pursue SOCIALISM more lucrative ventures, workers can leave their jobs Socialism is an economic system in which the factors for better pay; and of production are valued in relationship to their limited role of government, to protect the rights usefulness to people. Socialists take into account both of private citizens and maintain an orderly individual needs and greater social needs. They environment that facilitates proper functioning of allocate resources using central planning, as in a markets. command economy. The Ideology of State Capitalism Examples of greater social needs include All ruling classes defend their power and privileges with transportation, defense, education, health care, and an ideology. Similarly, all aspiring ruling classes justify preservation of natural resources.1 Some also define their pursuit of power with an ideology. The ideology of the common good as caring for those who can't directly state capitalism initially was fashioned during the contribute to production. Examples include the elderly, nineteenth century as groups in various European children, and their caretakers. countries advanced plans for reorganizing society A mantra of socialism is, "From each according to his along state capitalist lines and for raising their own ability, to each according to his contribution."2 social status in the process. Everyone in society receives a share of the production Since the nineteenth century, some of these groups (for based on how much each has contributed. This system instance, the Russian Bolsheviks) have fulfilled both motivates them to work long hours if they want to these ambitions, with the result that state capitalist receive more. Workers receive their share of production ideology has been transformed by them from sets of after a percentage has been deducted for the common ideas which challenge existing social arrangements good. into doctrines which celebrate the status quo and attempt to maintain it. Although some varieties of state Principal Characteristics of Socialism capitalist ideology have thus been transformed into Collectivism - Human beings are social by conservative creeds and even quasi-religious dogmas, nature, and society should respect this. we shall argue that there is an essential continuity Individualism is poisonous between the nineteenth-century and early twentieth- century ideological formulations of political radicals Public ownership - Society, not individuals, such as Kautsky and Lenin and the subsequent records should own the property of state capitalist groups in government in different Central economic planning - The government parts of the world. plans the economy; there is no free market Economic equality - All citizens have roughly Social Democracy the same level of prosperity. Social Democracy is a political movement which emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century and grew to mass proportions in a number of European countries. Despite the Social Democrats' habitual use of the vocabulary of socialism, the primary aim of their movement was to reorganize capitalism in such a way that state corporations would replace private capitalists. In many countries, parliamentary democracy did not exist when Social Democratic parties were formed. Accordingly, a second objective of Social Democracy was to democratize the political systems found in such countries. Thirdly, Social Democracy sought to improve  Differences Between Socialism, Capitalism, the monopoly of power (‘leading role’) of the Communism, and Fascism Communist Party; intra-party relations which were highly Capitalis Communis Attribute Socialism m m Fascism centralized and strictly disciplined (‘democratic Factors centralism’); of Individual state, rather than private, ownership of the Productio Individual means of production; Everyone Everyone s n are s owned the building of communism as the ultimate, by: legitimizing goal; and Factors a sense of belonging to an international of Productio Usefulnes Usefulness Nation Communist movement. s to Profit n are to people building people valued LESSON V: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE for: PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT Allocatio Demand n Central Central and Central plan A. THE BARANGAY AND THE SULTANATE decided plan plan Supply by: In early Philippine history, the barangay was a complex From sociopolitical unit which scholars have historically Value to each Market accordin Ability decides Ability the considered the dominant organizational pattern among nation the various peoples of the Philippine archipelago. The g to their: To each Contributi Value to term, barangay, refers to both a house on land and a accordin Wealth Need the boat on water; containing families, friends and on g to their: nation dependents and is currently the basic political unit of Class Warfare/Struggle the Philippines. According to socialists, liberalism fails to live up to its promises of freedom and equality. Socialists blame the These sociopolitical units were sometimes also referred free market for liberalism’s failings. Under a capitalist to as barangay states, but are more properly referred to system, money and means of production are the using the technical term "polity", rather than "state", so measures of power. The haves (the bourgeoisie, in they are usually simply called "barangays", but Marx’s terms) and the have-nots (whom Marx calls the evidence suggests a considerable degree of proletariat) are locked into a fight that Marx called class independence as a type of "city states" ruled by datus, warfare. rajahs and lakans and sultans. Some barangays were well-organized independent villages, consisting of thirty The Evolution of Socialism to a hundred households. Other barangays - most notably those in Maynila, Tondo, Panay, Pangasinan, Socialism evolved in a variety of ways. Communism Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu- were and democratic socialism are the two most prominent integrated into large cosmopolitan polities. evolutions of socialism. COMMUNISM The ancient Filipinos who lived in barangays were ruled by a chieftain called datu, who were addressed either Communism is an authoritarian and revolutionary as Raja or Lakan. The datu exercised all powers of approach to achieving socialism. As an ideology, government. He was the chief executive, the lawmaker, communism emphasizes a classless society in which and the judge, so much so that he became very all members jointly share the means and output of powerful and influential. He obtained his position either production. by inheritance, strength, bravery or wisdom. The Datu promulgated laws with the help of the elders or advisers The regimes of the Soviet Union and communist China consisting of former datus. Once a law was made, a embody this ideology. Communists such as Vladimir towncrier called Umalohokan, would go around the Lenin, who became the first premier of the Soviet Union village and announce to the people the new law. in 1917, argued that people can and must make the Violators were punished by fines, swimming for long transition to socialism quickly rather than waiting for it hours, exposure to ants, death or slavery. to evolve. Authoritarian and violent measures are often required because the defenders of capitalism will fight Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano defines this period of ferociously to stop socialism from coming into being. the barangay states' dominance - approximately the Communist systems possessed five common features 14th to the 16th centuries - as the "Baranganic Phase" which, taken together, distinguished them from other of early Philippine history. The Baranganic Phase of authoritarian regimes and, still more fundamentally, Philippine history can be noted for its highly mobile from socialism of a social democratic type: nature, with barangays transforming from being settlements and turning into towns and cities, with the mode constantly re-purposed according to the Filipinos to live together as one community. He is situation. Historical barangays should not be confused remembered for founding the cities of Manila and Cebu. with present-day Philippine barrios, which were officially renamed barangays by the Philippine Local Another outstanding governor was Jose Basco y Government Code of 1991 as a reference to historical Vargas (1778-1787) for his agricultural contributions, barangays. and economic programs that made Philippines financially independent from Mexico. He established B. THE SPANISH AND AMERICAN COLONIAL the “Economic Society of the Friends of the Country,” GOVERNMENTS to help in the development of agriculture, and in 1782, established the tobacco monopoly. The most liberal 1. Spanish Era (1565-1898) minded governor general was Carlos Ma. De la Torre (1869-1871). His liberal policies included the abolition The Philippines was a crown colony ruled by Spain of press censorship and the encouragement of liberal through Mexico from 1565 to1821, as such, Spain ruled discussions. He encouraged movements calling for the Philippines with the help of the Council of the Indies, reforms and sympathized with the Filipinos aspirations created in 1524, which was an overseas ministry for freedom and change. governing the colonies of Spain. The head of the council was the Viceroy of Mexico. Laws in the From 1835-1898, Spain experienced series of political Philippines were from Spain and consisted of royal changes. Wars and revolutions led to frequent changes decrees issued by the king. The laws were compiled to in the government and leadership of Spain as well as in become the colonial code entitled “Recopilacion de las the Philippines. Leyes de Indias,” or the Laws of Indies. The Judicial powers of the government were exercised Part of the Spanish rule was the institution of systems by the Royal Audiencia and the lower courts. The Royal adopted by all the colonies. Among these was the Polo, Audiencia was the supreme court that time. Its the forced labor rendered by Filipinos and the falla, the president was the Governor General. The first was exemption fee for forced labor. Another was the paying Santiago de Vera. of the tribute, or the tax called tributo, which was replaced by the cedula tax. Bandala was also a system Spain instituted the centralized form of government. that oppressed the Filipinos wherein farm produce were The barangays became part of the unitary government. sold compulsory to the government. Philippines was divided into provinces of two types: 1) the pacified provinces called alcaldia mayor headed by The chief executive of the Philippines was the governor the alcalde mayor and, 2) the unpacified provinces general. He was the king’s official representative to the called corregimentos, each under a corregidor. The colony. He possessed tremendous powers with provinces were divided into towns or pueblos, executive, legislative and judicial powers under his administered by a gobernadorcillo (petty governor). control. As chief executive he enforced the Spanish Another town official was the teniente mayor (chief laws and royal decrees in the Philippines. He appointed lieutenant) who was in charge of peace and order. A all subordinate officials including the “alcalde mayor” pueblo was divided into barrios or barangays under a (provincial governor). For his legislative power, he cabesa. Both the gobernadorcillo and cabesa served enacted and issued laws, regulations and decrees. For without salary. Large towns were organized into cities. his judicial power, he was the president or presiding The city government was called ayuntamiento. The officer of the “Royal Audiencia”, the supreme court of council that governed the city was the cabildo the Philippines during the Spanish era. He was also the composed of the alcalde regidores, alguacil mayor and commander in chief of the armed forces. The governor the escribano. also had ecclesiastic powers, the power to recommend priests for appointment and intervene in controversies Under the Patronato Real, in the case of Spain, the within the Church. During the encomienda period, he Church was placed under the care of the royal was in full control of the operations of the church. government. The Diocese of Manila, with its bishop, was at the top of the ecclesiastical hierarchy in the From 1565–1898, a total of 122 governor-generals colony. The bishop was appointed by the pope upon served in the Philippines. Accordingly, there were more the recommendation of the king of Spain. The other undesirable governors who only exploited the Filipinos early dioceses established were Cebu, Nueva Caceres than serve them. There were, however, a few good men (Naga) and Nueva Segovia (Vigan), all in 1595 the who truly served well and are remembered by Filipinos. Diocese of Jaro (Iloilo) was created on May 27, 1865. One was Miguel Lopez de Legazpi who was the first The four regular orders assigned to Christianize the governor general, from 1565–1572.and is remembered natives, were the Augustinians, who came with for his diplomacy with the natives. At a time of rigid Legazpi, the Discalced Franciscans (1578), the Jesuits racism, Legazpi worked on for the Spaniards and native (1581), and the Dominican friars (1587).  Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and was brought Part of the process on how Spain governed was to Manila. through the “encomienda system”, the first governmental system where lands were politically Consequences of American Occupation divided to those given grants, a reward for persons who have rendered valuable services to the king of Spain. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was Those who were given were called “encomenderos.” expanded in 1913. Influenced of the uselessness of The grant of encomienda, by the Spanish Crown was further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United one that of a trusteeship. The first to benefit were men States and issued a proclamation calling on his of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Spanish compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an Governor-General, who colonized Cebu. The three end to the war. However, sporadic insurgent resistance classes of encomienda were the royal, ecclesiastical continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially and private. Those that were set aside for the king were in the Muslim south, until 1913 “royal”; those assigned to the religious order were: “ecclesiastical encomiendas”; and for those who helped Civil government was established by the Americans in in the conquest and colonization were “private 1901, with William Howard Taft as the first American encomiendas” or repartimientos. Governor-General of the Philippines. English was declared the official language. Six hundred American 2. American Colonization of the Philippines (1898- teachers were imported aboard the USS Thomas. 1946) Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a The Spanish-American war which started in Cuba, substantial amount of church land was purchased and changed the history of the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, redistributed. Some measures of Filipino self-rule were the Americans led by U.S. Navy Admiral George allowed, however. An elected Filipino legislature was Dewey, in participation of Emilio Aguinaldo, attacked established in 1907. the Spanish Navy in Manila Bay. Faced with defeat, the Philippines was ceded to the United States by Spain in During the Spanish period the Spaniards had given 1898 after a payment of US$ 20 million to Spain in enormous land properties to the Catholic church. One accordance with the "Treaty of Paris" ending the of the first things the Americans did was to take care for Spanish-American War. the redistribution of this land properties. To do so they first had to pay an amount of US $7.2M to the Vatican On June 12, 1898, Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo in 1904. The small farmers or tenants didn't get any declare independence. This declaration was opposed land however. The land became property of some large by the U.S. who had plans of taking over the colony. landowners. Most of the small farmers couldn't pay the And this led to a guerrilla war against the Americans. asked price or couldn't prove that they were the f