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These notes summarize the peace treaties that concluded World War I and their consequences, focusing on the Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles. The document details the goals of the major Allied powers and the terms imposed on Germany and other defeated nations. It also highlights the economic and military impacts of the treaties.
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Power and Authority Overview of the peace treaties which ended WW1 and their consequences Paris Peace Conference Held in Paris ○ Not a neutral party in the war→Shows how the Allies won and dictated the peace negotiations. ...
Power and Authority Overview of the peace treaties which ended WW1 and their consequences Paris Peace Conference Held in Paris ○ Not a neutral party in the war→Shows how the Allies won and dictated the peace negotiations. Goals of the Big 4 ○ French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau French Security→No Future attacks from the Germans Demilitarise Germany Harsh terms against Germany→France suffered heavy losses from the war as they were invaded by Germany ○ US President Woodrow Wilson (Political scientist/Idealist) Wanted terms based on his 14-point speech Promoted self-determination (Countries based on ethnicities) Promoted League of Nations ○ UK Prime Minister David Lloyd George A middle ground between French(Harsh) and US(Lenient) Wanted it to be harsh for public approval but wanted to ensure that the German economy was ok to resume trade ○ Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando Wanted lands from Austro-Hungarian empire promised in Secret Treaty of London 1915 (Italy-UK) Outraged when Italy was not given its full due Treaty of Versailles 1 919 Germany-Allies Impact on land (13% was lost and redistributed) ○ Alsace-Lorraine to France ○ Largest→West Prussia, Posen and Silesia to Poland ○ Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet to Belgium ○ Northern Schleswig to Denmark ○ Hultschin to Czechoslovakia ○ Danzig and the Saarland→Mandates of the L.o.N. All colonies were lost(Chinese Colonies→Japan/Papua Colonies→Australia) ○ Economic Impact ○ Reparations were set at 132 billion gold marks (6.6 billion pounds) Never paid ○ Article 231(War Guilt Clause)→Stated that Germany and its allies were at fault for starting the war; was a legal basis for war reparations German People Detest this clause; they do not accept it Military Impact ○ Army was Reducts to 100,000 volunteers (No conscription) ○ No air force, no tanks, no heavy artillery ○ Navy limited→6 BS, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines ○ Rhineland became a demilitarized zone Creates a buffer zone between the Germans and the French Prevents another invasion by the Germans Other Impacts ○ Germany and Austria were not allowed to join together despite similar culture and language Keeps them divided and weak Goes against the 14-point speech (Woodrow Wilson) League of Nations ○ 26 articles were devoted to the League of Nations ○ The Treaty of Versailles included the “Covenant of the League of Nations” Consequences ○ Weakened new German democracy and contributed to the rise of Hitler ○ Universally despised by Germans The humiliation and a major cause of their economic hardship ○ Politicians bore the shame of signing the treaty; Kaiser had abdicated and Hindenburg and Ludendorff had asked politicians to take over Stab-in-the-back myth→German military had been prevented from winning the war because of the politicians November Criminals→Politicians were remembered as having signed the armistice to end WW1 ○ Hitler capitalised on the unpopularity of treaty→ Promised to destroy the treaty→ Popular message that accelerated his political rise Treaty of St. Germain 1 919 Austria-Allies Economic Impact ○ Austria went bankrupt before reparations Military Impact ○ Army reduced to 30000 ○ No air force or navy Treaty of Trianon 920 1 Hungary-Allies Lost over ⅔ of its territory and 64% of its pre-war population Economic Impact ○ 200 million gold crowns→Payment suspended due to Hungary’s financial difficulties Military Impact ○ Army reduced to 35,000 men ○ No air force, tanks or submarines Treaty of Neuilly 1 919 Bulgaria-Allies Economic Impact ○ The reparation of 100 million pounds, was not paid due to financial difficulties Military Impact ○ Army reduced to 20,000 ○ No air force ○ Navy reduced to 4 torpedo boats, 6 motor boats and no submarines Treaty of Sèvres 1 920 Turkey-Allies Economic Impact ○ No reparations Military Impact ○ Army reduced to 50,000 men ○ No air force, tanks or submarines Treaty of Lausanne 1 923 Turkey renegotiated a better deal after Mustafa Kemal Atatürk established the Turkish republic Final treaty of WW1→Renegotiated by Turkey from a position of strength under Ataturk Reorganised the boundaries of modern-day Turkey Dropped demands for spheres of interest in Turkey What were the consequences of the Peace Treaties C reated instability in Europe over borders Created huge resentment among the losing countries ○ G ermany was forced to pay 132 billion gold marks in reparations; and had a largely reduced military Created resentment among other countries too ○ Japan was furious over the Racial Equality Clause; Australia did not want this clause and the Americans backed them ○ Italy was furious as they did not get the Adriatic port of Fiume and other lands that were promised in the secret Treaty of London 1915; they could not trust the British and French (“Perfidious Albion”) ○ China was furious that the German colonies in the Shandong Province were not returned to Cina Contributed to Economic hardship because of reparations These peace treaties of WW1 contributed to causing WW2 However, it also led to the first international organisations to promote world peace ○ The Treaty of Versailles led to the formation of a new international organisation to promote world peace The Rise of Dictatorships after WW1 The conditions that enabled dictators to power in the interwar period. 1.WW1 contributed to the rise of dictatorships D efeat in WW1 was correlated with dictatorship as political regimes (monarchies) were blamed for wartime mismanagement; the following regimes were unstable and gave way for dictators to rise ○ Russia–Mismanagement of the war by Tsar Nicholas II, and was overthrown and executed by the Bolsheviks ○ Germany–Mismanagement of the war and economy by the Kaiser led to the overthrowing of the monarch . Another condition that enabled dictators to rise to power was the 2 post-war peace treaties, which caused dissatisfaction, resentment and nationalism. G ermany–Dissatisfied by the “war guilt clause”/Article 231, reparations of 6.6 billion GBP and reduction of the military. Hitler's promise to restore German pride and autonomy fueled his rise to power Italians were bitter as they felt cheated by the Treaty of London 1915, as they had not received the lands that the UK promised, Mussolini’s nationalist rhetoric of restoring Italy as en empire like the Romans led to his rise in power. J apanese lost faith in being accepted as equals with the West after the “racial equality” clause was rejected, leading to nationalism, militarism and anti-west sentiment. 3. The fear of radical socialism/communism enabled dictatorships F irst communist state in Russia after its monarch was executed in July 1918. Also setting up the Comintern to spread communism Middle and upper classes (and royals) were scared of communism spreading due to the potential losses they would bear Religious people and traditionalists also feared communism which criticised religion and traditions Thus, communism scared people into supporting dictatorships ○ Germany–Monarchists, Junkers and the industrial elite in Germany favour right-wing Nazis over left-wing radicals like the KPD ○ Mussolini’s blackshirts were notorious for fighting Italian communists, socialists and trade unionists. ○ Japan’s militarists were popular as they wished to exclude communists from Asia 4. The Great Depression contributed to the rise of dictatorships T he Great Depression in 1929 led to unemployment, loss of savings and poverty in Germany and Japan The low standard of living leads to distrust of democracy and moderate political parties, an opportunity for radicals like Hitler and Janapese militarists to offer solutions. An Overview of features of the dictatorships that emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan Common features of dictatorships in this period in Russia, Italy and Japan: error and Repression: Elimination of opposition T Totalitarianism: Controlling all aspects of life Censorship and Propaganda: Indoctrinating the people Cult of personality: Glorification and deification of dictator Expansionist: Revanchist and imperialist agendas Russia–Communist dictatorship under Joseph Stalin How did Stalin come to power? R ussia became communist after the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917 under Vladimir Lenin Lenin did not clearly state his successor after his death in 1924→Factional infighting between Stalin, Trotsky and others began Stalin won: ○ He appointed party members who were loyal to him, something he could do as General Secretaryof the CP ○ Using propaganda to emphasise his ties to Lenin Features of Stalin’s Dictatorship in Russia Totalitarianism→Stalinisation ○ Remained under one party ○ Agriculture was centralised through collectivisation from 1929-1937; The plan did not work and there was a famine from 1931-1934 ○ Industry was centralised through the 5-year plan, an emphasis was placed on the heavy industry of steel, building projects and armaments Terror and repression–The Soviet Union became a police state where obedience and loyalty were demanded and many were killed for opposition ○ 1929-1953: An estimated 20 million people were killed during Stalin’s dictatorship ○ Purges– Purges conducted by the secret police, killed or imprisoned in gulags. E.gthe Great Purge of 1936-1938included mass arrestsand show trials of many old Bolsheviks and army leaders; around 600k were killed ○ NKVD–Name of the Russian secret police; Nikolai Yezhovwas the head before he was purged ○ Gulag–Name of prison labour camps in Siberia where millions were sent for political crimes of opposition or alleged opposition. 2-2.5 million political prisoners by the early 1950s Cult of personality–Stalin was worshipped in official media and culture ○ Nicknames: Man of Steel, Shining Sun of Humanity and Vozhd (the Boss) ○ Artists, writers and film-makers praised him ○ Stalin portrayed himself as Lenin’s Heir Censorship and Propaganda–Information and arts were controlled ○ News, magazines, art and information were censored, no official news source ○ Foreign radios were jammed ○ Art had a policy of “Socialist Realism” Italy–Fascist dictatorship of Benito Mussolini How did Mussolini come to Power? M ussolini–A socialist-turned-fascist who supported Italy’s involvement in WW1; outraged with post-war settlement that disadvantaged Italy 1919– Mussolini organised the Blackshirts (Fasci di Combattimento) ○ A paramilitary squad of veterans and others beat up and murdered left-wing political opponents 1922March on Rome– Mussolini and his Blackshirtsclaimed a communist revolution was imminent and needed power to stop it. ○ During the March on Rome, they demanded power; Instead of imposing martial law, King Victor Emanual III appointed Mussolini prime minister on Halloween Day 1922 Mussolini was given dictatorial powers for a year, He used them to pass a law that allowed him to create a one-party dictatorship within a few years Fascist ideology was ultranationalist, anti-democratic, anti-socialist/anti-communist and expansionist; it glorified masculine strength and violence and idolised ancient Rome Features of Mussolini’s dictatorship Totalitarianism ○ Elections were eventually suspended and Italy became a one-party dictatorship ○ Opposition parties, trade unions and free press were all banned ○ Mussolini reigned with absolute power through government by decree Terror and repression ○ Blackshirts became an official government militia; they oppressed any opposition; e.g, the infamous murder in 1924 of socialist parliamentarian Giacomo Matteotti ○ Fascist slogan was “believe, obey, and fight!” ○ OVRA–Secret police formed in 1926 and used to spy on opposition and suppress dissent Cult of Personality ○ Mussolini was worshipped asIl Duce-The leader Propaganda ○ Romanita–Associated with the glories of ancient Rome→Restoring Italian glory ○ Censorship ○ Children were inducted into youth groups; they wore black neckerchiefs to promote their ties to the black shirts. Japan–Debate over whether a true dictatorship, but if not, very close How did the military (and later General Tojo) come to power? Disappointment with Allies/Versailles Treaty ○ Distrust of Allies after the racial equality clause was rejected ○ Resentment at the League of Nations for giving more of the spoils to established European powers ○ Distrust compounded by: Five-Power Treaty of 1922: Preventing Japanese naval parity with Britain and the USA Immigration Act of 1924: Banned most Japanese immigrants to the USA, reflected Asian racism after immigration began in the mid-nineteenth Century Great Depression of 1929 ○ Hit Japanese economy hard ○ Western countries imposed tariffs and trade barriers to protect their domestic trade i.e Smoot-Hawley Tariff ○ Growing support for socialist and communist groups caused fear in the Japanese military and elite ○ This resulted in political instability Military grew increasingly frustrated with democratic politics ○ Some in the military resented civilian governments for restricting military growth Washington Conference of 1922 London Naval Conference of 1930 ○ The military also saw Taisho democracy as corrupt and undermining traditional Japanese values Military gradually seized power ○ Mukden Incident, 1931–The Japanese military acted without the approval of the government; staged an attack on the South Manchurian Railway and launched an invasion of Manchuria ○ Militarists intimidated and murdered opposition Assassination of Prime Minister–In May 1932, he was assassinated by naval officers because he opposed military attempts to usurp decision-making power in the cabinet Power was Centralised in the Hand of the Military and increasingly General Tojo ○ Tojo–From a former samurai family; became a general in IJA ○ Minister of War–July 1940 ○ Prime Minister of Japan–October 1941 ○ Minister of Commerce and Industry–1943 Features of Tojo’s Military Dictatorship Ideology–Militarism, nationalism, emperor worship through Shintoism Censorhip and Propaganda ○ Cabinet Information Bureau–Censored all news and controlled propaganda Emperor worship ○ Japan a unique society with special martial virtues, i.e Samurai and bushido ○ Japanese were told that they were the superior race and deserved to rule over inferior races of Asia Terror and Repression ○ Kempeitai–Military and secret police mostly active in occupied territories Territorial expansion–The Military thought the best way to solve the problems created by the Depression was expansion ○ Greater East Asia Program ○ Nov 1936–Anti-Comintern Pact ○ 937 Invasion of China’s East Coast 1 ○ 1940–Tri-party Pact – Japan, Germany and Italy became the “Axis Powers” ○ 1940–Invaded French Indo-China ○ Dec.7-8 1941–Attacks on Pearl Harbor, Malay Peninsula to Singapore, Philippines The rise of the Nazi party and Hitler in Germany and the collapse of the Weimar Republic German political System before Weimar M onarchy (Kaiser)– Wilhelm II Chancellor and minister Some elements of an emerging democracy ○ Political parties ○ A Reichstag (parliament) existed ○ Limited franchise–men over 25 could vote Germany–the new Weimar Republic was born 1 918–Germany rather suddenly became a republic in the last days of WW1 Established in Weimar because Berlin was too dangerous at the time Lasted from 1919-1933 ○ Weimar Constitution–The rulebook for how politics would work in the new republic President Elected every 7 years Commanded armed forces Appoints the Chancellor Could dissolve the Reichstag and call new elections Had power to rule by decree at a time of national emergency Chancellor Similar to Prime minister Proposed new laws Negotiates with other parties Reichstag The main assembly and law-making body of the parliament Deputies are elected every four years Lander Germany was a federal system, where each state had local responsibilities, including education and policing Electorate: the people All men and women over 20 could vote Lots of freedoms–Free speech, free press, religious freedom Progressive rights–right to welfare and protections for workers Problems with the Constitution ○ Proportional representation–Encouraged the formation of smaller parties which led to frequent government turnovers and instability Most of the governments set up during the Weimar Republic were coalition governments and were often not effective, which led to constant elections government turnovers and electorate fatigue During this period, 20 different coalitions, 12 different chancellors, and 8 different national elections ○ The relationship between the president and the Reichstag, especially the emergency powers with Article 48, has been criticised as giving the president too much power Article 48–Gave the president the right to suspend civil rights in an emergency and to rule by decree This power was given to the president so that a government could continue to function in a crisis It would eventually be used to silence critics and parties that opposed Hitler ○ It did not reform the civil service, judiciary, and armed forces Civil service–well educated and professional but tended to support conservative values of Imperial Germany Judiciary–many judges were conservatives and sympathetic to right-wing Armed forces–Officers were generally monarchists and authoritarian, connected to the Prussian Junkers, who did not like democratic Germany 1919-1923 Weimar Republic’s Founding and Near Collapse This period is marked by: Political crises ○ Attempted revolutions from left-wing ○ Attempted coups from right-wing ○ Occupations of German land by French and Belgians Violence ○ Frequent assassinations by right-wing terror groups 1919-1922, there were 376 politically motivated murders in Germany 354 right-wing assassinations, only 28 were found guilty 22 left-wing assassins, 10 were sentenced to death Organisation Consul (O.C.)– Famous terror group,ultra-nationalist and anit-Semitic, formed out of disbanded Ehrhardt brigade Included the assassination of Mattias Erzberer and Walter Rathenau ○ Paramilitary groups Freikorps–Combat groups formed by former officersand soldiers in the German army at the end of WW1, around 200 different Freikorps; most were right-wing monarchists who sought to prevent a Bolshevik revolution in Germany Ehrhardt Brigade–Run by Hermann Ehrhardt, a navalofficer during WW1. The Ehrhardt brigade put down the Bavarian Soviet Republic in Munich and the First Silesian Uprising in 1919. The brigade supported the Kapp revolt ○ Red Front Fighters League–Communist paramilitary ○ Brownshirts–Nazi paramilitaries ofSA Armed and unemployed veterans everywhere–around 6 million Street fighting between political groups Economic crises ○ Default on reparations payments ○ Inflation→Hyperinflation A chronological narrative of major events in this period Social Democrats (SPD) They had around 38% of votes in the Reichstag after the 1919 election Friedrich Ebert was at first Chancellor and then president(1919-1925) Ebert-Groener agreementof 10 November 1918 (day afterthe declaration of the republic) Ebert-General Groener Ebert agreed to fight against Bolshevism and preserve the authority of the army Groener praised that the army and navy would support the new government and republic Impact ○ A success for the new republic and SPD because they had military support ○ Showed the fear and anti-Bolshevism of the German military The first major political crisis came from the extreme left: Spartacist uprisingof January 1919 Spartacist League–Formed during WW1, as they were upset with the SPD for voting for the war in 1914; became a pro-Bolshevik group that founded the German Communist Party (KPD) in 1918 Led by Karl Liebkcneckt and Rosa Luxemburg Attempted a Communist revolution in Berlin against the public Ebert, with the aid of the military and Freikorps, stopped the revolt. Liebknecht and Luxemburg were executed Impact: ○ Communists and Social Democrats became enemies. KPD would not work with SPD in Reichstag to block Nazis as they feared and detested the SPD for killing their leaders→made it easier for the Nazis to beat the left in the Reichstag ○ Confirmed and amplified the right’s distrust of the left There were other left-wing uprisings and attempts to take power, showing the political instability at the time Kapp Revolt–March 1920 This was a right-wing coup that was started after the government in Berlin reduced the size of the army and disbanded the Freikorps The head of the Ehrhardt brigade refused the orders and banded with right-wing Berlin politician, Wolfgang Kapp; Kapp emphasised the threat of communism, the Dolchstoss myth and the severity of the Treaty of Versailles. Successfully seized power in Berlin and set up a new government with Kapp as chancellor Shortly after, the revolt collapsed after trade unionists and civil servants went on strike in protest of the revolt Impact ○ Showed that the military did not support the republic when right-wing options were available ○ Showed crystallisation of right-wing ideology–Fear of communism, loathing of Versailles Treaty and belief in Dolchstoss myth The first period ended with theThree Crises of 1923 Occupation of the Ruhr by France and Belgium ○ Jan 1923– French and Belgian troops invaded Germany’s Ruhr region because Germany had defaulted on reparation payments ○ In response, German workers launched a strike, encouraging passive resistance against the occupation. Pumping money into an unproductive economy aggravated Germany’s pre-existing problem with inflation. ○ Impact Hyperinflation Increase German nationalism and loathing of French and Belgians Hyperinflation ○ Caused by inflation from German governments printing money to pay reparations ○ The value of German currency became almost worthless 1kg of butter cost 2.70 marks in 1913, 26,000 marks in the summer of 1923 and 6 trillion marks in November 1923 A student recalled ordering a cup of coffee for 5,000 marks and by the time he had finished it and ordered a second cup, the price had risen to 7,000 marks ○ The cost of living rose, people bartered since money was worthless, and many were impoverished, farmers refused to sell their produce for money, etc ○ Impact: Germans grew angry with politicians in Berlin and blamed the republic for economic mismanagement as the cost of living grew. Beer Hall Putsch– 8-9 November 1923 ○ An attempted coup d'état by Hitler during the crisis of 1923 ○ Inspired by Mussolini’s March on Rome 1922 ○ Hitler set out to overthrow the government in Munich before a march on Berlin to overthrow the Weimar Republic ○ Participants included Ludendorff, the SA(brown shirts), Ernst Rohm, Hermann Goring and Heinrich Himmler ○ The Coup failed and Hitler was arrested tried and convicted of treason ○ Impact Hitler’s trial was a publicity windfall for him and the Nazis and received positive publicity Hitler decided that he would use legal methods to gain power Hitler used his prison sentence to sort out his ideas and write Mein Kampf Showed the sympathy the justice system had for extreme right-wing groups like Nazis. A sympathetic judge only gave him 5 years, of which he served 9 months. Nazis were temporarily banned The economic and political upheaval of the first years of the Weimar Republic gave way to some semblance of stability and progress under Gustav Stresemann’s leadership. 1924-1929 The Weimar Golden Age In the summer of 1923, Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor and then Foreign Minister until his death in 1929. His policies brought 5 years of economic stability and included: Restoring confidence in the German currency ○ Established a new bank,Reichsbank ○ Established a new currency, theRentenmark(replacedwith Reichmark) Renegotiating the amount and payment of reparations while taking out loans to help pay them off ○ D awes PlanAugust 1924 – Ended the French/Belgium occupation of the Ruhr in 1925 and gave Germany access to American loans ○ Young Plan1929 – Reduced and spread out reparation payments to 1.85 billion pounds, ¼ of the original amount due in 59 years Right-Wing groups like DNVP and NSDAP despised the Young plan because they did not accept the “lie” of German war guilt The reorganisation of Germany’s financial system improved the German economy ○ Exports rose 40% between 1925-1929 ○ Production levels reached pre-WW1 levels by 1928 Weakness: Depended of American loans. Thecircular loan system(USA→Germany→Allies→USA) only helped in the short run but contributed to the financial collapse in 1929 as Americans pulled their loans Stresemann also had several foreign policy successes, Locarno Pactof 1925 – Germany accepted the existingborders between Germany, Belgium and France. Reassure France, getting them to support reducing reparations League of Nationsin 1926 – Stresemann got Germanyadmitted to the League of Nations and a permanent seat on the Council Kellogg-Briand Pactof 1928 – The pact attempted toeliminate war as government policy. Armies were kept only for “self-defence” and by peaceful means Allied withdrawal from the Rhine in 1929 – Stresemann negotiated this withdrawal from the Rhine years before it was originally scheduled Overall raising German prestige and returned some of its status Finally, the Weimar golden age is associated with: Creativity Liberal freedoms and culture However, Berlin was not typical Germany, most Germans were alarmed by the decline in acceptable standards of morality and culture. Stresemann’s death and the US stock market crash in 1929 ended the Weimar Golden Age, the latter event leading to the Great Depression and severely affecting the German economy, contributing to the rise of the Nazis. 1930-1933: The Great Depression and Collapse of the Weimar Republic ctober 1929, the American stock market crashed (Black Thursday/Wall Street Crash), O beginning an economic depression that greatly affected Germany leading to: Failure in the Banking system Unemployment ○ Roughly ⅓ ○ In 1929 Germany had 1.8 million unemployed. By 1932, it had 5.6 million unemployed Decrease in trade Decrease in production The end of Coalition Government: Müller’s Grand Coalition, 1928-1930 Grand Coalition 1928-30 ○ Led by Hermann Müller, an SPD politician ○ Couldn’t agree on how to fix the German economy→led to the collapse of the government Brüning’s Failure–Rule by Decree, 1930-32 ○ Gets the position through political intrigue ○ Rules by decree and bypasses the Reichstag through Article 48 ○ Normalised authoritarian rule through presidential decree Von Papen’s Failure–the Cabinet of Barons, May-Dec 1932 ○ Abolished Prussian State government ○ July ‘32 Elections Nazi party had 37.3% of the election Schleicher’s Failure (Dec 1932 - January 1933) ○ Schleicher was made Chancellor in early December. ○ Papen was upset with Schleicher for urging Hindenburg to drop him ○ Papen negotiates with Hitler to create a Nazi-Nationalist coalition government in which Hitler would be chancellor and Papen would be vice-chancellor ○ Papen got Hindenburg’s approval by arguing that Hitler’s powers would be limited – a “chancellor in chains” Papen boasted, “In two months we’ll have pushed Hitler into a corner so hard that he’ll be squeaking” ○ Hitler was made Chancellor in 1933 and had accomplished his goal, set after the Beer Hall putsch, of legally achieving power
