IGCSE History Notes PDF

Were the peace treaties of 1919-23 fair? Main Focus Specified Content What were the motives and aims of The peace treaties of 1919–23: – the Big Three at Versailles? the roles of individuals such as Why did all the victors n...

Were the peace treaties of 1919-23 fair? Main Focus Specified Content What were the motives and aims of The peace treaties of 1919–23: – the Big Three at Versailles? the roles of individuals such as Why did all the victors not get Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George in the peacemaking everything they wanted? process What was the impact of the peace – the impact of the treaties on the treaty on Germany up to 1923? defeateD countries Could the treaties be justified at – contemporary opinions about the the time? treaties The big three Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France Woodrow Wilson, President of America David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain The different victorious powers wanted different things, so there is no way that they could ALL get what they wanted ○ Wilson insisted on a League of Nations, even though Britain and France did not. ○ Clemenceau wanted to destroy Germany with huge reparations USA and Britain did not. ○ They came from different countries who had been affected differently- public opinion at home affected the leaders’ decisions ○ Wilson was an idealist with different policies, George and Clemenceau were imperialists and realists- different ideas due to national self-interest Country/Who Aims Motives France: Permanent disarmament If Germany was George -High reparations weakened they would Clemenceau Alsace-Lorraine and Saar not attack Europe and Basin given to France France again Rhineland to be an France had suffered independent state so France more than Britain or the would not share a border with US and there was a Germany national desire for 1 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  No League of Nations revenge Germany to be broken into France shared a border small states with Germany and had already been invaded in 1870 and 1914 Britain: Lloyd Wanted Germany to lose its Britain had suffered George navy and colonies as they direct attacks, 1 million threatened the British Empire casualties, food Reparations to be not too shortages and high as it would hurt economy had suffered Germany’s economy and so the public If Germany didn’t have the wanted revenge. Lloyd Rhineland, where most of its George had to reflect industry was, they would not these views as a be wealthy enough to buy re-election was coming British goods. up However, Britain needed Germany to have a good economy as they were a valuable trading partner A weak Germany would be susceptible to communism USA: Devised the 14 points in 1918 The US had not Woodrow in which Wilson hoped would suffered as much in Wilson form the basis of the TOV WWI, removed from the conflict, no territory had been invaded, only entered the war in April 1917, 800 civilians dead If the treaty was too harsh on Germany then communism would take over, like in Russia 1917 and Germany would take revenge when their economy recovered 2 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Wilson’s Fourteen Points 1. No secret treaties – had to lead to misunderstandings and suspicion in the past 2. Free navigation of the seas in peacetime and wartime 3. Free trade between countries 4. Disarmament for all countries​– build-up of weapons had been one of the causes of war 5. Colonies have a say in their own future 6. German troops to leave Russia 7. Independence for Belgium 8. Return Alsace Lorraine to France 9. The frontier between Austria and Italy adjusted 10. Self-determination for people of Eastern Europe 11. Serbia to have access to the seas 12. Self-determination for people in the Turkish Empire 13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas 14. League of Nations to be set up Countries created by self-determination: Treaty of Versailles Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia Treaty of Saint Germain Czechslovakia Treaty of Trianon Yugoslavia Treaty of Versailles 28 June 1919 ❖ War guilty (Clause 231) - Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war. This provides a justification for other clauses of the ToV. ❖ £6.6 billion reparation: The major powers agreed, without consulting Germany that Germany need to pay reparations to allies for the damage of the war. ❖ Loss of territories and colonies German colonies became mandates controlled by LoN (Britain and France) Alsace Lorraine given to France Danzig in Polish Corridor became a free city by the LoN, that cut East Prussia from Germany Saar Basin under LoN for 15 years, then a plebiscite to decide if it should be France, Germany or LoN. In the meantime, coal profits go to France Anschluss was forbidden Estonia, Lavia and Lithuania were set up as independent countries. Treaty of Brest Litovsk cancelled 3 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  ❖ Restriction and reduction in military force No submarines, tanks, or aeroplanes. Only 6 battleships are allowed. An army of 100,000 men. No conscription. Rhineland became a demilitarised zone. Reaction to the ToV German ○ German public felt cheated, stunned, hated, angry, unfair of these harsh terms in ToV (diktat). The treatment was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen Points A blow to Germany’s pride and economy. The Big Three had not negotiated with Germany in Paris - the German government didn’t present the peace talks. Germany’s comments on the treaty were largely ignored. Germany had not been invaded by the allies and German leaders had pretended that they were winning, right up to the signing of the armistice. Britain: some satisfaction ○ Britain gained most of Germany’s colonies which help it recover its wealth and power. France: not very satisfied ○ They thought Germany was not weakened enough and would rise again in decades. The USA: refuse to ratify the treaty ○ Congress which was mostly consist of Republicans refused to sign the ToV because: Republicans against President Wilson (Democrat) Republicans wanted isolation. 4 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Justification Fair ○ Avoid future war started by Germany ○ Germany had the ability to pay reparation By 1925 German steel production was twice that of Britain ○ Countries need reparation from Germany to rebuild infrastructures With a population of 40 million, half a million died and 700 thousand were disabled. almost one million British soldiers, sailors and airmen had been killed. Unfair ○ It is considered as diktat German government didn’t present the peace talks. Germany’s comments on the treaty were largely ignored. The treatment was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen Points ○ It increased instability and life harder for ordinary people Increased tax to pay reparations The invasion of Rhur → job lost → saving wiped out Austria: The Treaty of St Germain, 1919 Massive territorial loss which was taken by newly independent countries: Bohemia-Moravia to Czechoslovakia; Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia to Yugoslavia; Galicia to Poland and the land to Italy. Its army was reduced to 30,000 soldiers. Suppose to pay reparation (never set though) Forbidding the union between Austria and Germany (Anschluss) 5 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  - Why did the allies want Austria to be kept permanently? Italy feared a resurgence of Austrian power in the region - Significance of the treaty The treaty formalised the break-up of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The harshness of the treaty contributed to the Austrian support for Hilter after he came to power. - Impacts of the treaty The treaty had an economic impact because land given to Czechoslovakia contained much of Austria's industry. As a result, Austria's economy collapsed in 1921. Europe was impacted politically because eastern Europe was now made up of lots of newer smaller states, instead of several powerful empires. This meant there was a lot of instability. Europe was impacted socially because the new states formed as a result of the treaty contained a mix of different nationalities, who often clashed. Bulgaria: The Treaty of Neuilly, 1919 Bulgaria lost 10% land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia. Its army was limited to 20,000. £100 million in reparation. Bulgaria had less hash treatment because they were the first of the Central Power to surrender. However, many Bulgarians were governed by foreign powers by 1920. The Bulgarian leader who sign the treaty was assassinated in1923 Hungary: The Treaty of Trianon, 1920 Hungary had to accept the break up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungary lost land to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria and Romania. Hungary lost more than two-thirds of its territory and a third of its population. Its army was limited to 35,000 troops. It was supposed to pay reparations, but its economy collapsed so they were never set. ○ Its industries suffered from the loss of population and raw materials. Turkey: The Treaty of Sevres, 1920 The Ottoman Empire lost substantial amount of land. 6 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Parts of Turkey were defined as zones of influence controlled by the British, French or Italian. The tax system, finances and budget were all controlled by the Allies. The army was limited to 50,000 troops. The Ottoman Empire lost control of the Dardanelles Strait between the Black and Mediterranean seas, which became an international waterway. Turkey had long been a great and proud empire, and Turks were angered and humiliated nu the terms. → overthrow of the government → Britain did not want a return to war so they agreed to create the new Treaty of Lausanne. - Significance of the treaty It showed the other treaties were not enforceable. If there were protests against a harsh settlement there was little the Allies could do as they were afraid to return to war, to enforce the treaties' terms. When Britain decided to create a new treaty that Turkey might consider fair, this was seen as acceptance the old treaty was unfair. Therefore it undermined all treaties created under the peace settlement. The Treaty of Sevres and its subsequent renegotiation gave Hitler and Mussolini an excuse to break international law. To what extent was the League of Nations a success Main Focus Specified Content How successful was the League in the The League of Nations: 1920s? – strengths and weaknesses in its How far did weaknesses in the League’s structure and organisation: work of the League’s organisation make failure inevitable? agencies/ How far did the Depression make the humanitarian work work of the – successes and failures in peacekeeping League more difficult? during How successful was the League in the the 1920s 1930s? – the impact of the world depression on the work of the League after 1929 7 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  – the failures of the League in the 1930s, including Manchuria and Abyssinia The organizations and membership of the League of Nations The Assembly The Council The League’s parliament Five times or more a year Met once a year Permanent members: Britain, Decisions made had to be France, Italy, Italy and Japan. unanimous Each permanent member has a veto. Powers: moral condemnation, economic sanctions and armed force from member countries. The Secretariat The Permanent Court of International Civil service Justice Bring together experts from across Aim to settle disputes the world Had no way of making sure that countries followed its ruling. Four aims of the League of Nations 1. Discourage aggression 2. Encourage disarmament 3. Encourage cooperation 4. Improve living standards How successful is the LoN in the 1920s? Discourage aggression Success Failure Bulgaria incidence 1925 Corfu incidence 1923 - Greece invaded Bulgaria because - Italian General Tellini was killed on their soldiers were killed on the the border between Italy and border. Greece. Mussolini blamed Greece - The secretary-general immediately and demanded compensation. He called a meeting of the LoN in then invaded the island of Corfu. Paris. - Council of the LoN → the Council - League’s judgement: Greece of Ambassadors withdrew and pay 45,000 pounds - Greece has to apologise to Italy in compensation and pay compensation. Aaland Islands 1921 Vilna 1920 8 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  - Both Sweden and Finland claimed - Poland took control of Lithuania. the island and were threatening - The LoN told poles to leave, but war. they didn’t. - The LoN: the islands belong to - France and Britain were not Finland but the Swedish on the prepared to act. islands can decide in what ways they want to be ruled. - Sweden accepted this judgement Encourage disarmament Success Failure The Disarmament Commission worked to There is no disarmament conference until persuade member countries to reduce the 1932. size of their armed forces and to cut down - Nations disagree to disarm their stocks of weapons. The Washington Conference, 1921-22 - Britain, Japan and the USA agreed to limit the size of their navies Locarno treaties - Germany accepted its western border as set out in the ToV. Encourage cooperation Success Failure Economic recovery/trade - Daws plan - Marshall plan The league helped to develop an internationalist mind-set among leaders - Pave the path for the UN 9 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Improve living standers Success Failure The Refugee Committee The Refugee Committee - Introduced ‘Nansen Passport’ - Lack of funds which helped genuine refugees to - Complicated international situation travel across borders easier. in the 1930s - 400,000 prisoners were returned home by the League’s agencies. The International Labour Organisation The International Labour Organisation - New resolution: Maximum 48-hour - Only a few countries adopt the new week, 8-hour day resolution as the industrial cost - Banning poisonous white lead from would increase paint - Lack of funds → broke the resolution themselves The Health Committee - Develop vaccines and other medicines to fight deadly disease (leprosy and malaria) in research institutes they sponsored. - Advice on preventing plague in Siberia (USSR). How successful is the LoN in the 1930s? Failure to a great extent Invasion of Manchuria - In 1931, China appealed to the League of Nations which condemned Japan and ordered its troops to be withdrawn. Manchuria should be returned to China. - Japan rejected this and left the League in March 1933. → Japan was a leading member of the League → Japan successfully trampled the League and the prestige of the League was damaged. → A great power using force, contrary to the Covenant, could only be stopped by a greater force, of which was found lacking. The Great Depression in the 1930s: Britain and France suffered from serious economic problems and were reluctant to exert economic pressure on Japan or apply a trade boycott of Japan in case it led to war. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) - In 1934, the Italian army had built a fort at Wal-Wal, an oasis in Abyssinia. - There was a dispute between Italian soldiers and Abyssinian soldiers. 10 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  - Mussolini claimed there was Italian territory and demand an apology. - In Oct 1935, Italian troops invaded Abyssinia. → The sanctions did not include a ban on exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy. → the Suez Canal (supply route )which was owned by Britain and France was not closed to Mussolini’s ships. → Small states lost all faith in the League and Hitler himself was encouraged to break the Versailles Treaty (remilitarise Rhineland) → Mussolini allied with Hilter to form Rome-Berlin Axis. Effect/ Consequences 1. Undermind the authority of the LoN 2. Lose faith in the effectiveness of the League 3. Only work with backup of powerful countries 4. Show self-interest> collective interest 5. It succeeded in settling disputes between small nations, but the League failed to preserve peace among the major powers. Reasons for failure 1. Absence of major countries: no major power = no authority = no effectiveness a. The USA: isolationist policy i. Economic sanctions against an aggressive nation could not be very successful if the United States continued to trade with it. b. The USSR: ideology c. Germany: the Tov is the source of pain for Germans. After ww1, resentment of Germany still existed. 2. Self-interest> collective interest a. Britain: maintain peace and encourage economic recovery after the war. France: potentially dangerous Germany 3. The Great Depression: Member nations became more concerned with solving their own economic problems than with preserving peace. a. Some countries tried to protect their own industries by putting tariffs on imports. Trading partner so did the same thing and trade got even worse. b. Many countries started to rearm as a way to get industries working and giving jobs to the unemployed. But these new armies caused alarm and tension. c. The internationalist spirit of the 1920s was replaced by a more exploiting my neighbors approach in the 1930s. d. Countries put their own (domestic) affairs, especially economy, on top priority and help sort out international problems at low priority. 11 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  4. Lack of power to enforce decisions a. it did not have the force to make countries stop fighting b. Unwillingness to impose economic sanctions on aggressive nations i. It would harm their own trade as much as an aggressor’s. ii. The USA was absent. Disarmament Conference 1932 Achievement: limited the size of artillery, the tonnage of tanks and prohibit chemical weapons Failure: the bombing of civilians was to be prohibited, but all attempts to agree to abolish planes capable of the bombing were defeated ( the proposal of ban the manufacture of chemical weapons). Germany withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and the LoN and started reaming secretly. Other countries also began to rebuild their own armaments. It finally failed in 1934. Locarno Treaties 1925 Germany accepted its western borders as set out in the ToV. This was greeted with great enthusiasm, especially in France. It paved the way for Germany to join the LoN. Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? Main focus Specified Content - What were the long-term The collapse of international order in the consequences of the peace 1930s treaties of 1919–23? The increasing militarism of Germany, Italy and - What were the consequences of Japan the failures of the League in the Hitler’s foreign policy to 1939: 1930s? – the Saar - How far was Hitler’s foreign policy – remilitarisation of the Rhineland to blame for the outbreak of war in – involvement in the Spanish Civil War 1939? – Anschluss with Austria - Was the policy of appeasement – appeasement – crises over Czechoslovakia and Poland justified? – the outbreak of war - How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact? 12 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  - Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939? Germany’s rise Hilter’s foreign policy aims 1. Abolish the ToV a. The root of economic, social, and political problems in Germany. b. A constant of defeat and humiliation. c. ‘November Criminals 2. Expand German territory a. Anschluss (reunite with Austria) b. Get former German land back c. Lebensraum (‘living space’ for German) 3. Defeat communism a. He believed that Bolsheviks had helped to defeat Germany in the WW1 b. He thought the Bolsheviks wanted to take over Germany. Terms of the ToV What Hitler did and The reasons he The response from when gave for his action Britain and France Germany’s armed - 1933: Germany - Foreign policy - Britain felt the force to be severely left the LoN and aim: reverse the terms of the ToV limited began to rearm ToV. were too harsh: In secretly. - ‘Self defence’: 1934 the Anglo - 1935: massive 100000 men was a Naval agreement military rallies small army and allowed the - 1936: conscription other nations had German navy to reintroduced failed to disarm in rearm 35% of the 1934 British navy, - Reduce - Britan also unemployment thought a strong a Germany would be a good buffer to communism. The Rhineland to a - March 1936: Hitler - The action was in - Britain felt the ToV demilitarised zone marched German defiance of the ToV was too harsh and troops into the and Lorcano pact. the Rhineland itself Rhineland with - Hitler claimed was comparable to strict demands to Germany was ‘their back garden’. retreat if French under threat - France had an 13 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  retaliate. because France exaggerated view and the USSR of the strength of signed an the German forces agreement to - French leaders protect each other were about to hold from German an election. attack. - France would only - The LoN was act with British preoccupied with support. the Abyssinian crisis. Germany forbidden - In March 1938 - The Austrian - France and Britain to unite with Austria Hilter marched into people were were not prepared Austria: Mussolini mainly German. to go to war to and Hilter were - Austria was defend a flawed allies Hilter’s homeland. treaty. → Hilter tried a - Fulfilled his - Austrian union in 1934 but it foreign policy Chancellor was stopped by - Austria had Schuschning called Mussolini soldiers, weapons a plebiscite after - Nazi party stirred and rich deposits of Britain and France up troubles in gold and iron ore. failed to give Austria: riots and - Austria was support. demonstrations. economically weak. → unite German speakers in a strong Germany The Sudetenland - In May 1938 Hiter - Foreign policy aim - Britain and France take into new state declared his - A large number of thought Hitler’s of Czechoslovakia intention to invade German: once a initial demands Czechoslovakia. part of the were reasonable. - 15th Sep, Hilter Austro-Hungarian → They put their said he was only empire. plan to Czechs. interesed in the - Skoda factory and - The British navy parts of mineral resources. was mobilised. Sudetenland where - Leave Sudeten German Czechoslovakia live and want to join defenseless – next Germany through a step to Poland and plebiscite. the USSR. - 22nd Sep, Hilter - Justification: increased his Czech government demand, he wanted mistreated Sudeten all the Sudetenland. Germans. 14 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  The Polish Corridor - On 15th March - Foreign policy: - The end of given to Poland 1939, German reverse the ToV. Appeasement: B troops marched into - After years of and F declared that Czechoslovakia. Appeasement, if Hitler invaded - On 1st Sep 1939, Hilter thought B and Poland they would the Germany army F would not risk a declare war on G. invaded Poland. war. - On 2nd Sep, they declared war on G. The Saar Plebiscite 1935 The Saarland was run under the LoN for 15 years and was given a vote to decide if this region should be returned to Germany ○ 90% voted to return to German control Genuine support for Hilter - Germans hated the ToV and loved Germany more than they feared the Nazi regime Hilter worried because many of his enemies fled to the Saarland ○ Goebbles mounted a massive campaign to persuade the people to vote for the Reich ○ 1700 Nazis threatened to invade the Saar and impose Nazi rule The League was scared to confront violence The Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939 Stalin’s USSR supported the Republican government. ○ Weapons, aircraft, pilots, International Brigades Hilter and Mussolini supported General Franco’s right-wing rebels. ○ Nationalists won the war and a right-wing dictatorship ruled Spain for the next 36 years. Devastating impact of modern weapons convinced Chamberlain and others not to intervene at all costs. ○ Hilter may form an alliance with Britain or persuade them (plus France) to remain neutral in future wars. → Encourage Hitler in his main plan to reverse the ToV. → It gave combat experience to German and Italian forces. → It strengthened the bond between Mussolini and Hitler. Militarism and the Axis Winston Churchill describe the 1930s as ‘gathering storm’. Hilter and Mussolini’s armed forces were effective. Mussolini was aggressively trying to assert his authority in the Mediterranean and North Africa. Japan was under the control of hardline nationalists such as General Tojo. 15 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  ○ Japan was looking to expand an empire across Asia - In 1937 they invade China Japan, Germany (1936) and Italy (1937) signed an anti-Comitern pact, standing against communism called the Axis alliance. Appeasement For Against Germany provide a Memories of the Hilter could see Stalin and the buffer to horrors of WW1 - other fascist USSR’s suspicious communism. avoid a repeat leaders got away of Britain and with the wrongs. France’s Mistaken idea that Countries see Appeasement willingness to let Hitler was Germany was encouraged Hitler’s Hitler invade trustworthy. better armed than aggression - he Russia → caused Britain or France. made increasing the Nazi-Soviet gambles. Pact. Britain could not Many felt the ToV Hindsight – A betrayal of the guarantee the was unfair to Germany was not people of support of its Germany - once as strong as Czechoslovakia. empire, the these wrongs were believed, B and F Commonwealth or put right Germany could have stopped the USA (isolation) would become a war by acting far - they required aid. peaceful country. earlier. It gave Britain and France and Britain France more time had a huge amount to rearm. of debts and huge unemployment, 16 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji The Munich Agreement 1938 after the Sudetenland incident The leaders of Britain, France, Germany and Italy announced that Czechoslovakia lose Sudetenland to Germany. They did not consult with the Czechs nor the USSR. On 1st Oct German troops marched into the Sudetenland. ○ Hitler went back on his promises. - ‘undreamt-of triumph’ ○ Britain would not risk a war. → Hilter would increase gambles → Chamberlain approved a massive increase in arms spending in preparation for wars. → Opinion polls in Sep 1938 show British people didn’t believe Appeasement would stop Hilter. The Nazi-Soviet Pact 24 August 1939 To Hitler: the USSR was less sure if he moves toward Poland ○ Benefits: Avoid a two-front war. Gained half of Poland and reunite East and West Prussia. To Stalin: Fears and suspicions ○ Stalin could not reach any lasting agreement with B or F. ○ The LoN was too powerless to guarantee his security against G. ○ The Munich agreement: B and F were happy for Hitler to take over Eastern Europe → eliminating the threat of communism. ○ Benefits: They agreed not to attack each other - time to prepare for an inevitable war with G. 17 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Gain the territory of half of Poland. → G invaded P on 1st Sep 1939. → B and F declared war on G. 18 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Reasons for the outbreak of the war. 1. Treaties after WW1, particularly The ToV 2. The failure of the LoN 3. The worldwide economic Depression 4. The policy of Appeasement 5. The Nazi-Soviet Pact 6. Hilter’s actions and his foreign policy. 19 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Who was to blame for the Cold War? Focus Points Specified Content Why did the US–Soviet alliance The origins of the Cold War: begin to break down in 1945? – the 1945 summit conferences How had the USSR gained control and the breakdown of the of Eastern Europe by 1948? US–Soviet alliance in 1945–46 How did the United States react to – Soviet expansion into Eastern Soviet expansionism? Europe to 1948, and American What were the consequences of reactions to it the Berlin Blockade? – the occupation of Germany and Who was the more to blame for the Berlin Blockade starting the Cold War: the United – NATO and the Warsaw Pact States or the USSR? The Potsdam Conference July-August 1945 Allied leaders: Stalin (the USSR), Truman (the USA), Attlee (Britain) Stalin’s armies were occupying most of eastern Europe. ○ Stalin insisted that his control over eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks. ○ Truman was more anti-communist than Roosevelt. He saw Soviet actions in eastern Europe as a preparation for a Soviet take-over of the rest of Europe. Atomic bomb tests 6th August 1945 ○ Stalin felt more insecure and thought America was going to use this take over the world. ○ Truman wanted the bomb to a weapon that could exert pressure in the USSR → Distrust, suspicion, make further cooperation impossible 20 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji The ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech 1946 Delivered by Churchill Western Europe was free and democratic led by the Western powers while the East was under Soviet rule and subject to Communism. Stalin accused Churchill of trying to stir up war with the Soviets. 21 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Soviet expansion in eastern Europe American reaction Truman Doctrine 12th March 1947 ○ The USA was willing to send economic aid to any country trying to resist communism. ○ The USA wanted to contain the spread of communism. ○ $400 million would be provided to Greece and Turkey. Marshall Plan (European Recovery Plan) 1948 ○ By 1953, $17 billion given to Europe. ○ A propaganda tool - a way of saying “Look how wealthy we are, you don’t need communism. Stick with us and you’ll be wealthy too”. Soviet Reaction Cominform 1949: the Communist Information Bureau which had as its aim to tighten Soviet control in Eastern Europe ○ Regularly bring leaders of each Communist party to Moscow to be briefed by Stalin. 22 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Allow Stalin to keep close eyes on them – replace independent-minded leaders with people who were completely loyal to him. COMECON 1949: Soviet version of Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Cause Using money from the Marshall Aid programme, the Allies were helping the Germans to rebuild their economy. ○ This meant introducing a new, stable currency and more jobs for workers in the Western sectors. Introduction of Deutschmark. Bizonia (B and the USA) and Trizonia (+F) Polar ideologies ○ Stalin feared the influent of capitalism. Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak, unthreatening and as a ‘buffer zone. Result West Germany → the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG); East Germany → the German Democratic Republic (GDR) NATO (1949) and Warsaw Pact (1955) ○ Europe became divided into two opposing armed camps. ○ A spat between any two members of opposing alliances could easily escalate into a much larger conflict. Increasing tension ○ Berlin would remain a powerful symbol during the cold war. 23 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji 24 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  How effectively did the USA contain the spread of Communism? Focus points Specified Content This Key Question will be explored Events of the Cold War through case Case studies of: studies of the following: – American reactions to the Cuban revolution, including the missile crisis and The United States and events in Korea, its aftermath 1950–53 – American involvement in the Vietnam The United States and events in Cuba, War, e.g. reasons for involvement, 1959–62 tactics/strategy, reasons for withdrawal American involvement in Vietnam. – American reactions to North Korea’s invasion of South Korea, involvement of the UN, course of the war to 1953 Korean War 1950-1953 Background The North was Communist-controlled, with a Communist leader (Kim II Sung) who had been trained in USSR. The South was not very democratic but anti-Communism enough to win support from the USA (Syngman Rhee). China turned to a communist nation in 1949 and USSR developed its own atomic bomb (the USA was no longer the world’s only nuclear power). For Tuman and many Americans, containment was not so much a policy they wanted as a policy they had to make (avoid a full-scale war with the USSR) → They were not so much believed in containment but believed they could not accept anything less (further soviet expansion) Why did the North invade the South Why did the USA send troops to the South 1. Want of uniting Korea 1. Fear of an attack from China to 2. Support from the USSR and China Japan who was a key trading 3. North Korean’s forces were partner to the USA. stronger than the South 2. Domino Theory 25 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji American reaction The North attacked the South in 1950. Truman immediately sent advisors, supplies and warships to waters around Korea. Truman preferred a UN intervention to direct American involvement. ○ The USA was the single biggest contributor to the UN budget and therefore in a powerful position to influence the UN’s decisions. ○ The USSR didn’t use veto and was boycotting the UN over the issue of whether Communist China should be allowed to join the UN) ○ General MacArthur was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the UN forces by Truman. MacAuther was sacked by Truman by he ignored China’s warning and openly threatened an attack on China. → Truman didn’t think it was the right place and the right time to attack against China because it could potentially involve Russia and start a great and far too costly war. Consequences Over 30,000 Americans were killed and more than 1.5million South Koreans and 3.5million North Koreans were killed. The world was further divided ideologically. Border at 38th parallel. Success - show American will and means to contain Communism; Korea was nit fully under communism. Not a success - high cost and casualty; limits of the policy (had to accept NK was communist); tensions between American leaders (hardline anti-communists VS moderate politicians) Cuba Missile Crisis 1962 Cuban revolution In 1959, Castro overthrew American supported Batista. Castro took over some of the American businesses in Cuba, particularly the agricultural businesses. He took their land and distributed ot to his supporters among Cuba’s peasant farmer population. 26 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji The USA response to Cuban revolution: 1. They seized all imports of Cuban sugar starting from 1960. 2. They ended all trade with Cuba in October 1960. 3. All diplomatic relations were ended with Cuba in January 1961. → Cuba turning to the USSR, the USA’s enemy for help and protection. Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961: 1400 Cuban exiles VS 20,000 Cuban soldiers - Created by Eisenhower, enforced by Kennedy Reason of failure Consequence 1. The plan was openly published 1. Castro’s popularity increased on American press. as he repelled American 2. Airstrikes missed their target invasion. and Cuban air force left intact. 2. Make th bond between the Also photos of the repainted USSR and Cuba stronger. American planes became 3. Disaster and humiliation to public and revealed American Kennedy’s image. support. 3. Exiles are poorly trained by the CIA. Cuba Missile Crisis Naval blockade (quarantine) 24 Oct: any soviet ships carrying military weapons would be sink if enter this quarantine. → Kennedy described 24 Oct as the darkest day. Reasons of the USSR put missiles in Cuba 1. To defend Cuba (an excellent propaganda for Communism in America) 2. To close the missile gap – The USA had also recently placed missiles in Turkey which bordered the USSR 3. To show soviet strength A deal: - The Cuban Quarantine will be removed - ONLY if USSR removes the Cuban Missiles (Shown to the public) - AND if the USA removes the missiles from Turkey (Secret to the public) - AND Cuba remains safe from the US threats. - Because the removal of Cuban missiles were public, Khrushchev looked weaker and came out weak. 27 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Aftermath For the USA For the USSR For Cuba Kennedy’s Khrushchev shown Castro upset with reputation improved to be responsible deal but needed as he had made peacemaker. USSR’s support Khrushchev back Keeping Cuba safe Stayed communist down. was a major and highly armed - He had also stood achievement - helped communists up to critics in his useful communist in Angola 1970s own government ally. Kept control of that wanted to USSR humiliated American invade Cuba - not that they forced to companies - still a worth the high risk back down and source of dispute Allies in NATO were remove missiles. today unhappy with the 1964 - Khrushchev secret deal of forced from power - removing missiles maybe due to from Turkey. Cuban Missile Kennedy accepted Crisis. Castro’s Cuba would be communist - still restrictions on trade today The Vietnam War 1955-1975 Reason of American involvement Domino Theory ○ The US were afraid that if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in Asia would as well. Under ceasefire terms (Treaty of Geneva), an election was to be held within two years for reunification. ○ The US attempted to prolong elections as they knew the Communists would win. 8:2 Diem and his government in South Vietnam was unpopular and quite hated. ○ Diem was a corrupt leader who refused to give peasants land. ○ He was a Christian and did not like Buddhism (the religion for the majority of Vietnamese ) and treated the mainly Buddhist population badly. 28 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  The civil war ○ The Vietminh wanted to unite the country under communist leader Ho Chi Minh. ○ Many of the South Vietnamese people supported Ho Chi Minh as they were unhappy with Ngo Dinh Diem. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 1964: North Vietnamese boats attacked a US Navy destroyer, patrolling in the Gulf of Tonkin. ○ The congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution: President Johnson could take the USA into full-scale war if he felt necessary. American tactics Viet Cong tactics Bombing Guerilla warfare It damaged North Vietnam’s effort Attack when the enemy is tired, and it disrupted supply routines retreat when attacked, raid enemy From 1970 to 72, intense bombing camps. of NV forced them to negotiate Guerrillas didn’t wear uniforms nor peace. had no known headquarters. Civilian casualties helped turn the US soldiers lived in constant fear Vietnamese people against the of ambushes or booby traps. Americans. Supplies Search and destroy The Viet Cong developed on The raids were often based on supplies from NV that came along inadequate information. the Ho Chi Minh trial. Inexperienced US troops often 40,000 Vietnamese workeed to walked into traps. keep it open whatever the cost. Innocent villages were mistaken for Commitment Viet Cong strongholds. Large amount of casualties but This made the US and the South they refused to give in. Vietnamese forces very unpopular Civilians with the peasants. It pushed them Viet Cong fighters were expected towards supporting the Viet Cong. to be courteous and respectful to US troops the Vietnamese peasants. Many soldiers were young and had They helped the peasants in the nver been in the military before. fields during busy periods. The majority of combat troops came from poor and immigrant backgrounds. (inequality problem) The conscripts knew little about Vietnam while Viet Cong were fighting for their own country. As soon as soldiers gain experience they were sent home because of a policy of a one-year 29 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  term of service. Chemical weapons Agent Orange was a highly toxic weedkiller sprayed from planes to destroy the jungle where Viet Cong hid. Napalm burned through skin to the bone. Moral failure – the American always presented their campaign against Communism as a moral crusade. The Tet offensive 1968 During the New Year holiday, Viet Cong fighters attacked over 10 cities and other military targets. → they lost around 10,000 experienced fighters It raised hard questions in the USA ○ There were 500,000 troops in Vietnam and the USA spent $20 billion a year on the war. ○ The war was draining money that could be used to better purposes at home. ○ Racial inequality was highlighted as 30% African Americans were drafted in comparison to 19% White Americans. The media ○ Many journalists showed the terrible situation in Vietnam (the burning of villages; napalm Bombs; killing children) ○ Vietnam was no longer a symbol of America’s war against communism but a representation of defeat and moral corruption. ○ This led to anti-war protests during 1968-1970 with over 100 demonstrations. The My Lai massacre 1968 A unit of American soldiers called Charlie Company set out on a search and destroy mission hey received information that the villages within the My Lai area were Viet Cong headquarters. They were ordered to destroy everything and kill everyone in sight ○ They killed over 300-400 civilians including a large amount of women and children. However, there was no Viet Cong present at all- this had been a pointless massacre. 30 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  ○ This however, was lied about and covered up. It was reported that only 20 non-combatants had died and the rest were members of the Viet Cong. ○ This was uncovered later and many were investigated and trialled. Why did the USA withdraw from the War? People back home did not support it - My Lai massacre and death and injuries North Vietnamese had better tactics - Guerrilla warfare North had the support of the Vietnamese civilians It was draining the US’s economy (20m a year) and they had problems at home which had to be solved. Ending the war Election of President Richard Nixon in 1969 where he promised to have a peaceful end to the conflict. ○ Improved relationship with the USSR and China. End block on China’s membership in the UN Visits to China Visits to the USSR which achieved better understanding of each other ○ Vietnamisation: between April 1969 to the end of 1971 almost 400,000 US troops left Vietnam. ○ Peace negotiation with NV in1969 ○ Increased bombing against NV to show he was not weak. 1973 peace treaty signed in Paris. ○ Peace with honour ○ North conquered the South in 1975. Effects on the policy of containment It had failed militarily – the USA’s vast military strength could not stem the spread of communism. It had failed strategically ○ Bombing helped Communism win support not only in Vietnam but in Laos and Cambodia. ○ It speeded up the Domino effect. It was a propaganda disaster ○ Use of chemical weapons damaged the USA’s reputation. ○ In terms of a crusade of democracy, Americans were seen to be propping up a government that did not have the support of its own people. Vietnam syndrome ○ The USA lost confidence in foreign affairs. 31 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Additional tension in the cold war Method of containment Alliances: a network of anti-Communism around the world ○ NATO; SEATO in South East Asia and CENTO in central Asia and Middle East Arms race ○ USA developed the first atomic bomb in 1945 which caused detrimental effects to Hiroshima and Nagasaki. ○ Spied on each other ○ Both perfected nuclear weapon that could be sent off via submarines or planes The impact on the Arms race: quality and quantity Missile map ○ It was believed that the USSR had more missiles than the USA, this alarmed many and increased funding and spending in the military and the development of weapons. ○ However, this was not true. But Khrushchev was more than content to go along with this as he would look foolish and weak. Race in technology (Space Race) - USSR sent the first man up to space. ○ The Cold war was also a propaganda war and a race to show what country and system was more superior. Deterrence and MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) No one dared attack the other as this would result in their own destruction. MAD: having nuclear weapons deterred the other side from attacking first. Fear The nuclear arms race has raised the stakes so high that one suicidal leader, one poor decision or a mistake could trigger a catastrophe that could destroy Europe, the USA and the USSR. Children were taught what to do in the event of a nuclear attack. Some were concerned with the vast amounts spent on the military. 32 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989? Focus Points Specified Content Why was there opposition to Soviet Soviet power in Eastern Europe: control in Hungary in 1956 and ○ resistance to Soviet power Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how in Hungary (1956) and did the USSR react to this Czechoslovakia (1968) opposition? ○ the Berlin Wall How similar were events in ○ ‘Solidarity’ in Poland Hungary in 1956 and in ○ Gorbachev and the collapse Czechoslovakia in 1968? of Soviet control over Why was the Berlin Wall built in Eastern Europe 1961? What was the significance of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe? How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe? Methods the USSR used to seize power in E Europe After the war, there was a political vacuum in many countries in EE. Staline helped the Communist parties in them to win power. ○ Cominform: Communist Information Bureau Ran meetings and sent instructions to communist governments about what the USSR wanted them to do. ○ One-party state ○ Secrete police Station soviet troops in communist countries. ○ To restore law and order (excuse) Comecon: co-ordinate the industries and trade in EE. ○ Members of it mostly traded with one another than trading with the West Prevent western influence osmosis into EE ○ Comecon favoured the USSR with a good market to sell goods. ○ It forced other countries to sell raw materials to the USSR at a very low price. 33 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji How did Soviet control affect the people of EE? Freedom Wealth Consumer goods - Travel to WE was - Wages in EEC fell - Short of coal and forbidden behind those in milk. - People cannot other countries and - Shoes and clothing criticise the gov in the Soviet Union. were expensive. - Press was censored - Apply for Marshall - Goods like radios - No free speech Plan was forbidden. were rare. - Factories didn’t produce want ordinary people needed but what USSR wanted. Khrushchev, become the leader of the Soviet Union in 1955 De-stalinisation (radical) ○ Cominform closed ○ Release thousands of political prisoners ○ He invited Marshall Tito to Moscow Tito was the leader of Yogoslavia which is a communist country but resisted Soviet control. The Soviet Union criticised it in the press. ○ Agree to pull out Soviet troops from Austria. He created the Warsaw Pact in1955 → sent a signal to opposition groups in EE that they could now press for changes Case Study 1: Hungary uprising in 1956 Causes 1. Matyas Rakosi was placed in charge of Hungary by Stalin in 1945. a. Rakosi imprisoned 200,000 political opponents and use secret police to monitor ordinary people. b. In 1952, Hungary experiences its lowest harvests, and Rakosi became extremely unpopular. c. Hungary joined Comecon - not receiving a fair price for its exports 2. Stalin died suddenly in 1953. 3. Want of political freedom 34 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji What happened (1) On 23rd Oct 1953, students and workers took to streets of Budapest to protest about their lack of political freedom and the problems created by poor harvests. Khrushchev sent in Soviet troops to restore order and decided to replace Rakosi with Imre Nagy. Nagy announced to release political prisoners, to end the one-party state in Hungary and to withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. ○ It damaged the Warsaw Pact ○ Security fear of capitalism spreading beyond the iron curtain and into the soviet influence sphere. ○ Fear of loss control of the EE: Hungary may be the first domino. ○ Khrushchev needed to establish his authority and prestige in the Soviet Union. (2) Soviet responses 1000 tanks and 200,000 Soviet soldiers rolled into Budapest. 20,000 Hungarians were killed. A new pro-communist government was set up. 200,000 Hungarians fled to Austria to escape Soviet forces. The Soviet Union would not follow a softer approach after Stalin’s death. Case study 2: Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring, 1968 Cause 1. Alexander Dubcek’s reforms: less censorship, more freedom of speech and reduction in activities of the secret police. 2. Brezhnev worries the reforms would lead to Czechoslovakia leaving the Warsaw Pact, allowing NATO to move in. a. It would split the Warsaw Pact into two and advance NATO’s frontier 700km further to the east so that it boarded the Soviet Union itself. 3. Czechoslovakia was becoming closer to West Germany. a. Fearing WG might soon dominate the economy of Czechoslovakia and other eastern bloc countries. Soviet response To start with, it tried to slow down Dubeck. ○ Soviet, Polish and EG troops performed public training on the Czech border. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and ended the Prague Spring. 35 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  ○ The bulk of these troops were from the Soviet Union but to give the impression that they represented the whole of the Warsaw Pact. ○ 100 Czech citizen dead. Unlike Nagy, Dubeck was not executed but gradually downgraded. Dubeck was replaced by Husak, a hardline communist. Brezhnev Doctrine ○ No communist country would be allowed ti pass reforms making to it more democratic, nor would to leave the communist bloc and the Warsaw Pact. ○ Any attempts to pass liberal reforms would lead to an invasion from the Warsaw Pact. How similar are the Hungary Uprising and the Prague Spring? Consider: 1. Amis of rebel 2. Attitude towards Communism/democracy/the USSR/the West 3. Why/How the Soviet Union intervened 4. Casualties/outcomes Case study: The Berlin Wall Refugee Problem Between 1949 to 1961, about 4 million East Germans fles to the West through Berlin because they were dissatisfied with the economic and political conditions at home. From Jan 1961, the number of refugees leaving EB increased rapidly (more than 200,00 a month) → Berlin became a gap in the Iron Curtain. → EG losing valuable people and skilled workers → Propaganda disaster The solution On 13 August 1961, EG soldiers erected a barrier along the entire frontier between the East and West Berlin. It was quickly replaced by a concrete wall. All crossing points were sealed. Soldiers had orders to shoot people trying to defect. 36 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Outcomes Negative Positive Soviet Khrushchev was forced ti abandon plans to The Soviets had managed to Union unite G under communism stop the mass exodus if Germans. The wall showed that the Soviets had to The wall sent a message that lock people in E to stop them from leaving. communism would survive in Berlin and any attempt to reunite G would fail/ USA The Soviet Union had closed the border The wall showed that without consulting the USA. Khrushchev had been forced to accept Western control in West Those people who wanted to escape from Berlin. Communism were no longer able to. West Berlin became an emblem of freedom and defiance against Communism Both Less tension, less likely to go to war Same as mentioned Case study 4: Solidarity in Poland 1980-1981 The Solidarity movement was a group of Polish workers (led by Lech Walesa) which put pressure on the communist government through a series of strikes. → The government agreed to all 21 of Solidarity’s demands, including more pay, end to censorship, some welfare benefits as police and party workers, broadcasting of Catholic church services and election of factory managers. Reasons of Solidarity’s success 1. The union was strongest in those industries that were most important to the government. 2. Was not seen as an alternative to the Communist Party at an early stage. a. More than 1m communists joined it. 3. The union was immensely popular. (peak at 9.4m members) 4. Support from the Catholic church 5. Gained support int eh West → the Soviet Union treated it cautiously. Brezhnev ordered the Red Army to carry out training on the Polish border. The Red Army General, Jaruzeski introduced martial law and put Walesa and 10,000 other solidarity leaders in prison. 37 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Reasons for the crushing of Solidarity 1. Solidarity was acting as a political party. a. Setting up a new government without the Communist party. 2. Solidarity was tumbling into chaos a. There are many factions. Some felt they should push Communist harder till it cracked. Strikes continued long after the Solidarity leadership ordered to stop. 3. Poland was sinking into chaos. a. Food shortages (Rationing introduced in April 1981) b. Wages increased less by inflation. c. Unemployment was rising. The significance of Solidarity It highlighted the failure of Communism to provide good living standards and this undermined the Communism’s claim to be a system which benefits ordinary people. It highlighted inefficiency and corruption. ○ Inequality between Communist Party members and ordinary people. It showed that there were organisations which were capable of resisting a Communist government. It showed that Communist governments could be threatened by people power. Mikhail Gorbachev Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985. Soviet Union’s economy was weak – spending too much on the arms race. He is an idealist and believed life should be better under communism. He definitely did not intend to dismantle Communism in the USSR and the EE, but he did want to reform it radically. Hardline communists thought his ideas were too simple and did not believe him. Gorbachev’s reforms Perestroika (re-construction) allowed market forces to be introduced into the Soviet economy. ○ For the first time in 60 years it was no longer illegal to buy and sell for profits. Glasnost (openness): allowing people to have a better understanding of how the country ran and a more open attitude to foreign relations. Red army began to shrink. He withdrew troops from Afghanistan 38 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  He talked about international trust and cooperation as the way forward for the USSR rather than confrontation. Sinatra Doctrine: countries could conduct their own affairs as they wished and do it in their own ways. ○ Countries can govern themselves without Soviet interference. Reagan became the president of the USA in 1981, his policy towards USSR is getting tough. → relationship improved → less treat to Gorbachev → less need of control of EE → SU lost the arms race because lack of fund How far was Gorbechev personally responsible for the collapse of the USSR? Far Not far Gorbachev explicitly allowed Growth of Nationalism It was falling Eastern Europe to pursue its own apart anyway (explain Hungary path : Glasnost (openness) 1956, Czechoslovakia 1968, Berlin ○ this led to revival of previous Wall 1961) feelings (Prague Spring Gorbachev just provided the spark etc). that lit the fire ○ It encouraged reform in ○ his reforms acted as a Czechoslovakia 1989, and catalyst East Germany 1989-90. ○ such as Romania and Gorbachev allowed Solidarity in Bulgaria revolted in 1989 as Poland in 1990 a result ○ this was a step in the People were very unhappy direction of disintegration ○ living standards were low He allowed people to practice their and too much was spent on religion and even met the Pope arms (25% of GNP by ○ this went against the firm 1980s) rule of Communism. There was a lack of jobs, American Reversed Brezhnev doctrine farmers were 7 times more in Afghanistan. productive. He introduced perestroika Raegan’s hardline policies pushed (restructuring) the USSR to the brink; he won the ○ this loosened the chains of arms race and was on the the economy and people offensive were allowed to make ○ helped Afghanistan beat money USSR, called USSR ‘evil Alienated hardliners with his empire policies ○ they eventually stabbed him in the back with the coup of 1991. 39 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe 1987 : Perestroika and Glasnost 1988 : Rising prices in Poland lead to strikes and talks with Solidarity ○ Gorbachev pledges to remove troops from E.Europe 1989 : Hungary promises elections and choice of parties ○ Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia declare sovereignty ○ Solidarity takes control and promises elections ○ Gorbachev visits E. Germany and urges it to take its own path ○ Czechoslovakian Velvet Revolution removes Communists from power ○ Romania: Ceaucescu executed 1990 : Ukraine declares sovereignty ○ Germany unified; wall falls 40 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  1991 : Croatia, Slovenia declare independence ○ Warsaw Pact ended ○ Soviet Coup attempt; Russia declares independence under Yeltsin in Dec ○ Gorbachev resigns on 25 December 1991; the USSR was no more People power Communist control was toppled because ordinary people were not prepared to accept it any longer. They took control of events. It was not political leaders guiding the future of eastern Europe in 1989 but ordinary people. Reunification of Germany In Nov 1989, the Berlin Wall was dismantled With the down of the Berlin Wall, the WG Chancellor proposed a speedy reunification of Germany. Germans on both sides embraced the idea enthusiastically. Gorbachev accepted the reunification and even accepted that it will be a member of NATO. On 3 Oct 1990, Germany became a united country. Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970–2000? Focus Point Specified Content Why was Saddam Hussein able to The rise to power of Saddam come to power in Iraq? Hussein in Iraq What was the nature of Saddam The rule of Saddam Hussein up to Hussein’s rule in Iraq? 2000, and the consequences of his Why was there a revolution in Iran rule for different groups in Iraq in 1979? The nature of the Shah’s rule in What were the causes and Iran and the Iranian Revolution of consequences of the Iran–Iraq 1979 War, 1980–88? The causes and consequences of Why did the First Gulf War take the Iran–Iraq War, 1980–88; place? Western involvement in the war The causes, course and consequences of the Gulf War, 1990–91 41 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Saddam’s rise to power and consolidation Use of force ○ Saddam’s regime was responsible for the death of at least 250,000 Iraqis, and committed war crimes in Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. ○ Ba’ath party purge in 1979: Muhyi Abdul-Hussein was one of the senior Baathist leaders, who confessed his attempt to overthrow Saddam’s control of Iraq. This ended up with most conspirators was executed and survivors were asked to kill accomplices. This shapes Saddam a ruthless and brutal ruler, no tolerate to any form of dissent. Build infrastructure and launch social welfare reforms ○ Ba’ath led government nationalized the oil industry oil. Saddam use immense oil revenue to improve infrastructure — healthcare, education, electricity, etc. These really benefit ordinary people, especially in rural area, as they were able to access high-quantity social services for free. As a result of these reforms, Iraqis believe they living a country of freedom that helps Saddam gain popularity among people and burnish his reputation, establishing a staunch base for his government. However all these benefits only to people who stand on the right side of Saddam’s regime. Propaganda ○ Saddam Hussein claimed himself to be a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and portrayed this in his propaganda. ○ Saddam’s portrait appeared on the sides of buses, office buildings, hospital and Iraqis currency. (Almost everywhere in Iraq) Saddam exploit Islam religion to enlarge his influence in Iraq and other Arab countries as he was the god chosen leader. This creates a personality cult. He was able to spread his image nationally and continually to his civilians and create a false persona. When a referendum was held on his presidency, 99% of Iraqis vote in support. Nepotism ○ Saddam put his family members into important positions in Iraq's society and politics. ○ Eg: Ali Hassan Majid was his first cousin, he was Minister of local government, Defence minister, Interior Minister and Head of Party intelligence. ○ Familial safeguards succeeded in preserving Saddam's grip on power Loyalty + tolerance 42 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Benefit to one means benefit to all, whereas harm to one means harm to all. Saddam’s reactions to repression ○ Iraq’s population was made of three main groups — Shia Muslims, Sunni Muslims and Kurds. ○ Saddam was a Sunni Muslim, however Shia Muslim is the majority of Iraq’s population, accounting 65%. They want more inclusion in Iraqis government and society. After Islamic revolution in Iran, saddam becomes increasingly suspicious and afraid of a similar revolution in Iraq to shake his regime. Therefore, in 1980-81, 200,000 Shiite were deported to Iran as their ‘loyalty was not proven’. ○ Since the state of Iraq was created, the Kurds had enjoyed a certain amount of self-rule, but many of their leaders wanted to achieve separatism. ○ The Kurds come from 20% of Iraq’s population. Although they are Muslims but not Arab and speak another language. In 1974-75, Saddam attacked the Kurds on the purpose of extending his control over Kurdish north. This triggered the Kurds’s indignation and repression. With Iranian help, the Kurds gained greater control of Kurdish north, the opposition of Saddam’s aim. Saddam also saw this as a betrayal. Consequently, Ali Hassan, the ,cousin of Saddam was known as the ‘Chemical Ali’ because of widely using chemical weapon and bombs to destroy Kurdish areas. About 180,000 Kurds were killed and at least 100,000 refugees fled to neighbouring countries. Iranian revolution Causes Dissatisfaction with Shah’s government and his handling of the economic and social problems in Iran ○ Shah’s government led by the puppet king Faisal, declared a monopoly on oil and Tobacco productions through the British-owned companies, Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (they were the main sources of country’s income). ○ The PM Mohammad Mossadeq was popular with Iranian people because he nationalised Iran’s oil industry. 43 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  A sign of Iranian independence from domination. ○ The Shah regarded him as a threat because he argued in favour of more limited powers for the monarchy. With the help of the CIA and MI6, the Shah overthrew Mossadeq in a military coup. A widespread anti-Western attitude as a result of the Shah’s close relationship with Britain and the USA ○ close ties with non-Muslim country’s banks and cinemas which showed mostly foreign, sexual films and theses were felt to be unislamic. Khomeini was afraid that these would influence the culture and religion of Iran. ○ The influence of the USA became more apparent when the Shah began importing large quantities of American foodstuffs and tired to introduce American-style shopping malls. Undercut the efforts of local farmers. Damaged the interest of the bazaar merchants. The role and impact of Ayatollah Khomeini ○ The mullahs encouraged street demonstrations against western influence ○ In response, the Shah’s secret police arrested, exiled, imprisoned and tortured thousands of Government critics, including the mullahs. ○ The outstanding leader, Ayatollah Khomeini had been forced into exile by the Shahs In 1964, he went to Turkey—Iraq—Paris. From here his writings and speeches were smuggled into Iran. Most of Kjomeini’s exiles were spent in Iraqi where they sent his recorded cassette tapes of his political message across the border into Iran. ○ Khomeini deliberately avoided any mention of his desire to establish an Islamic government and instead concentrated on issues that would gain maximum support among his audience. Consequences The creation of an Islamic Republic of Iran Ended the westernization and modernization of Iran Set up a traditional government and society based upon the Koran Establishment of a parliament, the National Consultative Assembly (Majlis) and approval of the first constitution Iran-Iraq War, 1980-88: In 1980 Saddam decided to invade Iran. 44 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Cause The Shatt-Arab waterway ○ Iraq’s acess to the sea was very narrow while Iran had a lonf coastline and several ports through which to export its oil. ○ Iraq wanted to gain complete control of the Shatt-Arab waterway to gain a secure outlet to the sea. Khuzestan and Kurds ○ The south-western Iranian province of Khuzestan was oil rich with a predominantly non-Persian population (Arabs) who had cultural connection with Iraq. Saddam claimed a historical right to control the province and encouraged the Arabs to revolt against the Shah’s rule. ○ In retaliation, Iran began encouraging the Kurds in the north Iraq to take up arms against Saddam’s regime and providing them with the trainig bases ans military equipment. Opportunities provided by the Iranian revolution. ○ It’s economy was in chaos following the fall of the Shah’s regime. ○ The country was facing a western boycott of its trade because of the capture of the US embassy. ○ The Iranian armed forces were demoralised. Khomeini’s oppositin to Saddam ○ Iraq was secular stat and most leaders were Sunni Muslims. (religious reasons) ○ Khomeini call Iraqis Shittes to overthrow the Baath regime and establish another Islamic country. Saddam saw Khomeini’s influence as a potentially very serious treat. Saddam had evidence that Iran was involved in the assassination of lwading members of the Baathist Party in Iraq. Western involvement ○ The main interests of the western power during the was was to preserve the balance of power in the Middle East and to ensure the uninterrupted flow of oil supplies from this region. ○ American policy: ensuring at least Iraq did not lose the war. Fear of another Islamic revolutionary goverment in Baghdad Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf staes would then face the Islamic treat. ○ Western countires supplied Iraq with miliatry equipments. Consequences 45 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Iran Iraq Khomeini had to agree a ceasefire Life expenctancy fell and infant because of Iraq’s military mortality increased. superiority. Iraq face debts of $80 billion. It had not succeeded in exporting The economy was in tatters and its revolutionary Shiite brand of there was no post-war recovery. Islam. ○ The value of Iraq’s oil Iran’s living standars pummeted. exports declined because of war demage. Unemployment ○ People work in oil industries lost jobs. Officers felt cheated of victory over Iran and some privately blamed Saddam for the failure. The first Gulf War Resons for tension in the Gulf National Identity ○ Iraq is an Arab nation; Iran is not an Arab nation ○ Iraqis and Iranians care more about their country, their identity, and their religion than money or oil causing issues between them and foreign nations Israel ○ Jewish state created in 1948 and carved out of inhabited Arab land ○ Creation of state was opposed by all Arab states (source of tension) Individuals ○ Saddam Hussein, Ayatollah Khomeini are causes of tension due to their actions which created conflicts Religion ○ Sunni (mainly Arab like Saddam) and Shia (mainly non-Arab like Ayatollah Khomeini) Muslims ○ Disagreements between these two branches of Islam lead to conflicts Oil ○ All states in Persian Gulf produced oil (contains ⅔ of world’s known oil reserves) — main cause of their wealth ○ Nations in West are dependent on them for oil imports since without it, transportation systems and manufacturing industry would break down 46 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji Cause of the invasion of Kuwait Historical claims ○ Until the end of the WW1, Kuwait had officially been part if the Turkish Empires’s province of Basra. The association between Kuwait and Basra led a number of Iraqi rulers to insist that Kuwait was rightfully part of Iraq. Saddam’s domestic position ○ Iraq displayed many of characteristics of a defeated power Inflation, Iraqi prisoners remind in Iranian hands, demobilized troops joined unemployment. ○ Since July 1988, there had been at leat four assassination attempts on Saddam’s life. ○ Saddam desperately need to secure his rule and Kuwait seemed the answer to his problem. He could pose as the liberator of a territory which many Iraqis regarded as rightfully theirs, improve Iraq’s access to the Gulf, and acquire a much position in the world’s oil markets. Financial and economic factors ○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait refused Saddam’s ask to write off their $40 billion loans of Iraq. ○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait increased theri oil production so bring down the international price of oil. ○ Saudi Arabia and Kuwait again refused Saddam’s ask to bring their oil production into line with the quotas fixed by OPEC. ○ Saddam accused Kuwait was illegally extracting Iraqi oil ($2.4 billion) Establish regional leadership ○ Occupation of Kuwait could help Iraq to enlarge its infuence in the Abrab world and dominate Saudi Arabia. The First Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) — January - March 1991 A war to liberate (free) Kuwait Started with a five-week air assault on military targets along with airports, bridges, factories and roads but later in February, ground attacks began A coalition formed of 35 nations in the UNSC (eg. USA and Saudi Arabia) fought against Iraq during the war (Iraqis were shown no support) Iraqi forces attempting to wreck Kuwait by pouring oil into the gulf in hopes of setting their oil fields on fire After Iraqis were driven out of Kuwait, US forces continued to push further into Iraq while calling for support from the Kurds and Shias in order to overthrow 47 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji  Saddam; however, they were given no support from the US nor did they have enough arms 50,000 Shia Muslims were killed following the attempt to overthrow Saddam Covered by the Media, forcing USA and Britain to act upon the situation ○ ‘No-fly zones’ established to prevent Saddam from gaining control over the North – Kurds achieve a ‘safe haven’ Coalition forces stopped short of Baghdad ○ If USA were to push further in order to overthrow Saddam, America’s Arab allies would not have supported them ○ UN restricted them to only liberating Kuwait Some view the Gulf War as USA attempting to establish their military presence in the Gulf as well as dominate the world’s oil resources Gulf ceasfire Peace terms were imposed in Iraq by the UN following the conclusion of the Gulf War ○ Iraq had to recognise Kuwait’s sovereignty ○ Iraq had to pay reparations ○ Iraqi aircrafts could not enter ‘no-fly zones’ in the Kurdish north and south ○ Iraq had to comply with weapon inspections by the UN to uncover and destroy any and all weapons of mass destruction Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) are biological, chemical or nuclear weapons that could be used to kill as many people as possible Until all WMD were destroyed, UN imposed wide-ranging trade sanctions (no one can trade with Iraq) Consequences Saddam suffered a massive and humiliating military. ○ Dealing with revolts broke out in the south and north of Iraq. ○ America retained a military presence in Saudi Arabia, using it as a base to enfore the ‘no-fly’ zones. ○ Loss of international truss. Coalition destroyed Iraq’s infrastructures: power station, oil refineries, roads. Shortage of food, medical supplies and clean drinking water + reduction in welfare services. Sanctinons mwant that Iraq was unable to sell its oil abroad. UNSE Resolution 687 called Iraq to dismantle his non-conventional, biological, chemical and nuclear weapons. 48 Compiled by Kehan (Clara) Ji