Rwanda Genocide History Review PDF

RWANDA BACKGROUND Civil War (1990): a rebel army mostly of ethnic Tutsi rebels or the Rwandan Patriotic Front, invaded Rwanda from Uganda Militia formation: the government recruited men to become militias Racist Media: radio drew on ethnic nationalism and racist categories Arusha Accords: a peace...

RWANDA BACKGROUND Civil War (1990): a rebel army mostly of ethnic Tutsi rebels or the Rwandan Patriotic Front, invaded Rwanda from Uganda Militia formation: the government recruited men to become militias Racist Media: radio drew on ethnic nationalism and racist categories Arusha Accords: a peace accord between the Rwandan Patriotic Front and Government of Rwanda (rebels and gov) and were favorable to the rebels Violence in Burundi: Tutsi offers assassinate Huto President, widespread killings of Tutsis by Hutus began Democratization: from one party state since 1990s, Habyarimana was the head of the state MDR: Largest Hutu led opp party Akazu: “little house” key power holding elite around president Killing of Habyarimana: On APRIL 6, Rwandan President Habyarimana plane was shot down by missiles, unsure if Hutus or Rwandan Patriotic Front did this Rwandan Patriotic Front: ruling political party in Rwanda…RPF rules to this day, TUTSI LED Mobilization (Hardliners): Hutu hardlines issue orders to wipe out the ‘Tutsi enemy,’ bands of Hutu men armed with basic farming tools attach Tutsi homes Mass Killing Micro Theories/Motives?: obligation, coercion, war motived anger First Wave Ancient Tribal Hatred with Hutu and Tutsi?: Tutsi were seen to have lighter skin and be taller (on avg) compared to Hutu Pre-colonial, Hutu and Tutsi identities were more fluid and less rigid ethnic categories State Collapse/Failure Rwanda was economically declining, civil war, political instability Second Wave Political History and History of Ethnicity, Pre-colonial impact → same thing mentioned previously Hamitic hypothesis: Was influenced by racist European theories, arguing that Tutsis were of a superior Caucasoid origin Indirect Rule: the Belgians practiced this with relying on the Tutsi monarchy and elite for governance Institutionalization of racial difference Hutu Revolution (1959-1962): accompanied by widespread violence killing thousands of Tutsis, resulted in establishment of one party state and Hutu power Elite Planning/State Role (vs State Collapse): militias backed by the state, the government using the radio to incite violence, rapid mobilization, institutions in place, civil defense Small group of key actors Bottom line: State involvement in perpetration of violence, clear elite direction Interpretive Debates: The Question of Planning Cumulative radicalization vs intentionalism models: basically non clear vs clear model of genocide Cumulative: the after the assassination of President Habyarimana, extremists within Hutu gov took advantage to create chaos Intentionalist: that the genocide was deliberately planned by the Hutu extremest as a long term strategy ICTR judgments: The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda concluded that the genocide was not a spontaneous outburst but a well coordinated act of mass murder CLEAR policy of genocide after April 6, 1994 and not clearly state policy until April 12 THEORIES Macro War and strategic arguments, political upheaval, ethnic nationalism, state power, absence of restraint, less compelling cultural of hatred, difficult life conditions/hardship authoritarianism Micro Ordinary men motivations, fear (war time), coercion (horizontal and vertical?), group dynamic, opportunism, social ties/networks, ethnic categories and narratives International Response: Dallaire (Force Commander UnAMIR) troop request denied Policy was to not get involved because of risk aversion, Somalia, mandata, lack of interest, peacekeeping, lack of agreement CAMBODIA Auto-genocide: extermination of countries own citizens by its people or government Khmer Rouge (KR): communist ruling party of Cambodia, led genocide Pol Pot : Brother No.1 secretary of CPK and PM of DK Nuon Chea: Brother no.2 deputy secretary of CPK and President of representative assembly Khieu Samphan: President of CPK Ieng Sary: Deputy PM and Minister of foreign affairs of DK  Son Se: deputy PM and Minister of National defense of DK Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK): also known as khmer rouge led by pol pot Tuol Sleng: S-21: Angkar: Word for “organization” used in DK by KR. No clear representation of the word could’ve referred to KR leadership or Pol Pot directly. Macro theories regime type: totalitarian difficult life conditions Ideology (communism, agrarian) war (Vietnam war, Cambodian Civil War) Macro theories not applied: divided societies institutionalized discrimination Year Zero: marks beginning of Cambodian genocide, symbolic day where KR declared its time for cambodia to be rebuilt/erase old society New People: elites, enemies of revolution, urban residents, professions Old People: peasants, rural folk, farmers, favored by KR Democratic Kampuchea (DK): Renamed Cambodia under KR regime Holodomor: Cambodia was a genocide because the main purpose of the famine was group destruction through starvation (similar Stalin’s Soviet Union and famine amongst Ukrainians) Can you discuss Luong Ung Amina Malik YUGOSLAVIA Key Players Alija Izetbegovic: Bosnian President, Muslim Slobodan Milosevic: Yugoslav President, later Serb President Ratko Mladic: Bosnian Serb military Commander Radovan Karadzic: Bosnian Serb political leader Franjo Tudgman: Croatian President Marshal Josep Tito: dictator. Ruled for 40 years, emphasizes “brotherhood and unity Background: 1980s ○ Yugoslavia consists of 6 republics: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Macedonia, and  Montenegro ○ Tito’s death in 1980 sparks economic decline and higher inflation (up to 50%) ○ Communist eastern bloc unravels and nationalist movements wanting secession ○ Idea that serbs are facing genocide in Yugoslavia is spread by “academy of sciences” publication ○ Slobodan Milosevic gives speech in Kosovo where her promises serbs, “you will not be Beaten again” ○ 1987/89 : Milosevic consolidates power in Serbia and peak serb nationalism, elected leader in parliament in 1989 1990: ○ Elections in Yugoslavia where Milosevic wins 86% of vote in Serbia, nationalism parties also win in Croatia and Slovenia ○ Serbs in Croatia organize parliamentary and appeal Serbs receive military supplies from Milosevic Serbs in Croatia’s Krajina region wanted autonomy but Croatia was not happy with this Escalated conflict as a result 1991: ○ Slovenia and Croatia declare independence ○ Milosevic and Serb nationals prevent the secession of Slovenia ○ 10 day war in in Slovenia, Yugoslavia withdraws and Slovenia becomes independent ○ 7 month war in Croatia, Serbs expel ethnic Croats from serb-dominat areas ○ Croat defense forces attack Serb areas, Milo would send a 20 mile tank column to Croatia ○ Ethnic cleansing on both sides : croats in serb ruled areas and vice versa 1992: ○ War in croatia slows down, ⅓ Serb control 5060k croats displaced 230k serbs displaced ○ Growing fear of serb-dominance in Yugoslavia, Bosnian leaders seek independence 99% vote-share of yes. Bosnian serbs unhappy though and declare independent serb state: “Republika Srpska” Results in war between Bosnian Muslims and Serbs Serbs receive support from Misovic Ethnic cleansing occurs w/Serbs cleansing Bosnian muslims Croats would also cleanse areas of muslims “Cleansed” muslims congregate in large towns 1993 ○ UN declares Sarajevo a safe area and aims to protect muslims from aggression ○ UN peacekeepers in safe areas ○ EU proposed a “Vance-Owen Plan” that would separate Bosnia into 10 enclaves but plan does not see through 1994 ○ War continues, siege of sarajevo ends in March - all peace efforts flop 1995  ○ Bosnian serbs wage war, assaults on safe-areas, and dutch peacekeepers are taken hostage ○ 5-7k Bosnian Muslim men killed, women are raped Ethnic Cleansing: combination of execution, deportation, and institutionalized discrimination, sexual violence, and massacres. Usage of terror to force ethnic populations to leave territories. ICTY: International Criminal Trubunal for former Yugoslavia to set hold Balkan leaders accountable for genocide and crimes against humanity Field of BlackBirds: 1938 battle where invading Ottoman turks defeat medieval serb empire. Symbol of serb nationalism, and serb victimization. Serb Empire: symbol of serb nationalism and victimization Chetniks: term for serb nationalists during world War II Ustase: WWII Croat fascist party accused of mass killing of serbs Saravejo: capital of Bosnia, Siege of Sarajevo, declared a safe city and occupied by peacekeepers earlier on but later subject to violence AMERICAN INDIANS IN CA (Negative Case) Section notes Disease: was spread to the Indigenous and killed a sig portion of the population (sometimes deliberately spread and other times not) Time period (long): this is a longer period of times compared to other cases, which is why scholars argue that it is dispossession Perpetrators: Variety of perpetrators, Portugeous, British, French, American settlers Variety of Victims: there are a variety of victims within Indigenous tribes…do we lump together? Large Scale: 95% to 98% of the population was killed of Indigenous people were killed 3 Key events: 1) Trail of Tears (takes places in the South and concerns Cherokee) Cherokee cooperated with the US Army to fight other tribes, and proclaimed that they are independent nations with sovereignty ->this led to Georgia ordered the Cherokees move westward with the cotton production expanded in these areas That is was created the Trail of Tears when Cherokee families decamped and went to Mississippi, many dying 2) Sand Creek (takes place in Colorado and concerns the Cheyennes and Arapahos) Denver settlers and Colorado mining camps violated treaties with the Cheyennes and Arapahos  Federal government pushed tribal chiefs to small reservation in Colorado, with led the governor to allege an Indian War The governor had the encampment be attacked, which killed about ⅓ of the Cheyenna and Arapahos (mainly women and children) 3) Yuki Indians (takes place in NorCal) The Gold Rush brought settlers, which confined 5,000 Yuki Indians, settlers killing hundreds or thousands Settlers kidnapped Yuki women and children, the Governor declared a war of extermination and encourage campaigns to kill Indigenous people By 1880, only 400 survived the violence of massacres, dispossession, and institutionalized starvation Lecture Notes Three Main Periods 1) Spanish America (15th-17th C) The Spanish colonized parts of the Americas, focused on Central America and the Caribbean (Inkas, Aztecs) The Spanish brought diseases to the Native inhabitants of these places, with no prior exposure to these diseases, Indigenous peoples had a high death rate, which made it easier for the Spanish to gain control of territory. Technology from Spain made it easier to conquer, they had firearms, cannons, while the Indigenous did not have this advanced technology. Massacres (extreme violence), factionalism (dividing Indigenous communities), and colonial reading were used to gain territory. 2) Colonial Period (16th-18th C) Main place focuses on New England, Mississippi Valley, South East of U.S Diseases were spread from the Europeans to the Indigenous, easier for colonizers to colonize. Exploiting rivalries, the Europeans took advantage of pre-existing rivalries between Indigenous groups to benefit them. Dispossession, the European settlers gradually pushed out the Indigenous over decades through violence and manipulation. Broken Treaties, treaties between the Europeans and Indigenous were often broken, ignored, or manipulated to benefit the Europeans. Brutal Wars, devastating wars which killed and displaced many Indigenous people. 3) Western Expansion (19th C) Indian Removal Program: 1830, this act was signed by Andrew Jackson which sought to remove Indigenous tribes form their native lands in SouthEastern U.S, to provide land for white settlers and examplant agricultural dev Boarding Schools: Started around the 1810s, the goal of these schools was to forcibly assimilate Native children to European culture. Things like banned their native languages, cut their hair, and made them wear European clothing. ○ Another thing to note are the deaths and abuse that occurred at these schools. Many kids died from preventable diseases, approx 40% of these children died while at these schools. “Kill the Indian, Save the Man” : the creator of this term believed that the only way to save Native Americans was to convert them into White culture and working-case, forcing indigenous children to a military style education and forced to assimilate (as mentioned in previous bullet point)  Assimilation and Cultural Destruction: Europeans made the Indigenous assimilate to their culture so the Indigenous culture could be destroyed…does this show intent? Controversy… Hard to determine genocidal intent, and use of ‘genocide’ Genocide as part of territorial expansion? Very understudied. In 2024, Biden gave a presidential apology to the violence inflicted on the Native Americans/Indigenous. Côte d’Ivore (Negative Case) Background: Military coup: at end of 1999 there was a military coup and 2000 elections were very violet Civil War #1 (2002-2007) Attack from the north and seized the northern half of the country Claiming to fight anti-muslim, anti-northern discrimination French, ECOWAS, and UN intervention 2007 Peace Accords Civil War #2 Gbagbo (incumbent president) Ouattara (former prime minister), Ouattara won but Gbagbo’s people did not accept these results After 2010 elections, another war happens Gbagbo’s constitutional coup after 2010 presidential election UN and France intervene against Gbagbo forces Gbagbo captured, Ouattara took power in 2011 Macro Level Driver of Conflict: decline in commodity prices, fiscal crisis, and in 1990s there is rise of multi parties and division between northern and southern parts of the country Risk factors for genocide: History of ethnic tention, difficult life conditions, ethnic nationalism, civil war, and other factors such as militias, past massacres, and hate media Rise of Ivoirite: a form of ethnic nationalism and political exclusion aimed at the Northerns, and muslims Economics: very open markets and export oriented agriculture, focusing on cocoa, coffee, and cotton Immigration: lots of migration, 26% of pop is foreign Political Problems: clientelism (where politicals provide material goods or services to people in exchange for political support) and personalized political parties around Houphouet Boigny (first president of Cote d'Ivoire), single party, non democratic politics. There was a lot of risk factors like anti-muslim discrimination, upheaval?, ethnic nationalism from the Southerners for resentment of immigrants/northerners, civil wars..yet there was not mass killing or genocidal intentions Default Answer (not full): International intervention, the French intervene quickly Domestic Factors: Dynamics of War: not side really tried to defeat the other militarily and serious or coordinated efforts Economic Incentives for Moderations: the size and structure of their economy meant that mass violence would put a large dent into it Founding Narrative? : Houphouet Boigny emphasized tolerance and multi ethnic/multi religious nation Basically international helps with preventing genocide but also ideologies of previous/current leaders like Houphouet Boigny GAZA (Undecided Genocide Case according to Straus) BACKGROUND October 7, 2024: Hamas Attack Primarily targeting Jewish civilians Was designed to be dramatic and instill fear, live streaming murders, sexual violence Scale: about 1200 killed and approx 240 Isrealis were hostages This seems like terrorism as it used violence for political message Israel's Counterattack in Gaza Objective is said to destroy Hamas Launched massive, bombing campaign, and ground invasion of Gaza Outcome was massive destruction of buildings, hospitals, schools, with approx 40,000 dead (mainly civilians) More than 20 years of war in Afghanistan in smaller space Widespread malnutrition and warnings of famine LEGAL CONCEPTS War Crimes Question: Disproportionate violence against civilians? Answer: Yes. Evidence of targeting civilian infrastructure, leading to high civilian casualties. Crimes Against Humanity Question: Systematic, widespread violence against civilians? Answer: Yes. Deliberate destruction of civilian infrastructure in Gaza qualifies as a crime against humanity. Genocide Big question: Does Israel’s action constitute genocide? Key issue: Intent. Does Israel aim to destroy Palestinians as a group, or is the goal to eliminate Hamas? INTERNATIONAL LEGAL VENUES International Criminal Court (ICC): Charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity against Israeli leaders International Court of Justice (ICJ): South Africa, and 14 other countries, filed charges of genocide against Isreal Core of the ICJ Case: Genocidal Intent? South Africa’s Argument: Israel’s actions seem to have a pattern to destroy Palestinians in Gaza (national, racial, and ethnic group) Acts of Genocide: 1) Killing 2)causing serious bodily and mental harm 3) deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life 4) reproductive violence Intent Targeting Palestinians, using large scale, destructive weaponry Bombing safe zones and critical infrastructure Genocidal Speech: Israeli leaders refer to Palestians as human animals and want the erasure of Gaza ISRAEL REBUTTAL Self defense against Hamas and wants to create a better future for Gaza’s Palestinans Claims that they forewarn civilians, follow military necessity guidelines, and does not intend permanent occupation of Gaza Criticism: Disproportionate violence, destructions of vital infrastructure, and civilians as primary targets, high civilian death and seem like they are primary targets Scholars Say… Concerned about famine and no effort to make sure this doesn’t happen Attacks on Rafa and civilian zones, civilians have been attacked in refugee areas Former IDF General called actions in Northern Gaza as ethnic cleansing IS IT GENOCIDE? Unclear to Straus and unclear logic: Violence in Gaza can align with genocide, but it can also be seen as other strategic goals (detterence, elimating Hamas) Unclear WHO are primary target, Hamas or civilians? Unclear the aftermath of Israel's plans post conflict, which can clarify intent FROM CAUSES TO PREVENTION, COURSE CONCLUSION Section Slides Important commonalities between the cases we have studied Mass Categorical Violence: coordinated campaigns of mass violence against a marginalized group, pattern of group destruction Role of the State: violence was primarily carried out of a least initiated by the states Escalation: ratcheting up of violent polities and attitudes towards the outgroups, process one of radicalization, in particular on the part of the elites that control the state A common pathway: 1)history of conflict between groups 2) country enters crisis 3) we see rise of power to political party that endorses ethnic nationalism 4) we see breakout of armed conflict and targeting the outgroup as the ‘enemy’ Lecture: Is it lecture 22? READINGS Scott Straus: The Order of Genocide (Micro Theories in Rwanda) Methodology: interviews perpetuators to understand motivations for genocide among participants Finding: fear and anger as a drive to commit genocide, consequence, social pressure, and war related anger, younger men more likely to participate in violence, intra-hutu coercion, Argument: reasons for genocide are complicated and there is not a single motivation ○ Importance on understanding social, and situational contexts behind genocide and participants Joe Sacco “Safe Area Gorazde” (Bosnia Micro Theories) Focuses on ‘safe areas’ during Bosnian War Focuses on more psychological (bystander, in group v outgroup, social, and individual) micro theories The killing Fields, Loung Ung’s Memoir Focuses on her personal experiences in the Cambodian genocide Genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina by Edina Becirevic? The Centrality of Dispossession by Ned BlackHawk? (Native American)/ Ostler? Making and Unmaking Nations Cote d’Ivoire Examines plausible sources of restraint: At the macro level: political, economic, ideological, international At the meso level: civil society, e.g., or local commercial ties At the micro level: values of inter-ethnic cooperation, e.g. tolerance Zoom Example Questions: