Political Ideologies PDF

Amelia Yuliana Binti Abd Wahab Department of Political Science Modern AbdulHamid AbuSulayman Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences (AHAS KIRKHS)` Political...

Amelia Yuliana Binti Abd Wahab Department of Political Science Modern AbdulHamid AbuSulayman Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences (AHAS KIRKHS)` Political Ideology The term "ideology" combines two Greek roots, eidos for "word", and logos for "knowledge". Ideology means "words of knowledge". To Antoine Louis Claudee Destutt de Tracy, ideology was a study of process of forming ideas. He wanted to apply the knowledge gained from this process to improve human life. According to L.T. Sargent, an ideology is a value system or belief system accepted as fact or truth by some groups. Ideologies are comprehensive Ideologies are pervasive Characteristics of Ideology Ideologies are extensive Ideologies are intensive  Values Value is defined as a set of mental preferences. Every ideology Intellectual identifies some values that are more important than others, and the highest value provides the criteria by which all other ideas , beliefs, and actions should be judged. Components Vision of the Ideal Polity Every ideology, by definition provides a vision for the future. It of an provides a picture of what a polity would be like if it were organised and managed in th best possible manner. Conception of the Human Nature ideology Every ideology contains beliefs about what makes people, societies, and governments behave as they do. Political Tactics Every ideology has a strategy, a comprehensive basic plan, to change the existing polity into the ideal polity. Impersonalities Every ideology prescribes or advocates using certain modes of political action to carry out its basic strategy  Ideology addresses basic human psychological needs such as safety, freedom, and community. Our social Functions of ideology itself satisfies many basic human needs by telling us how to meet them. Ideology An ideology provides its believers with a sense of understanding history and societies, and with clues about what kinds of things thy should pay attention to or ignore Ideology is essential. It is a yardstick, a reference point. Without a perspective with which to grasp the world, we cannot operate within it. Ideology is powerful. Ideologies have provided the inspiration to bring some governments into powr and throw others out of power. The name liberalism came from the Latin "liber" meaning free. Society should be as free as possible from government interference. Although there were many differences among classical liberals, the central tenets of classical liberalism are as follows: Classical Individual Freedom Liberalism Liberalism stands for the organisation of a society which allows for and promotes individual freedom and development. Rationality Liberals believe in the notion that individuals are pre-eminently rational. Individuals are considered to be one of the highest value and their value is seen as being displayed in their rational capacities to order and shape their own lives. Progress Liberalism is also distinguished by its concern to promote progress. The liberals argue that by expanding knowledge and perfecting reason, and by improving economic condition. The name liberalism came from the Latin "liber" meaning free. Society should be as free as possible from government interference. Although there were many differences among classical liberals, the central tenets of classical liberalism are as follows: Classical Individual Freedom Liberalism Liberalism stands for the organisation of a society which allows for and promotes individual freedom and development. Rationality Liberals believe in the notion that individuals are pre-eminently rational. Individuals are considered to be one of the highest value and their value is seen as being displayed in their rational capacities to order and shape their own lives. Progress Liberalism is also distinguished by its concern to promote progress. The liberals argue that by expanding knowledge and perfecting reason, and by improving economic condition.  Modern liberalism accepts the principal tenets of classical liberalism. They believe in individualism, rationality, rule of law, constitutional government, and popular sovereignty. They agreed that government intervention in people's moral, religious, and intellectual lives should be kept to an absolute minimum. By the late 19th century, it had become apparent that the free market was not self-regulating. Competition was not perfect. The system seems to produce a large underclass of the terribly Modern poor. Modern liberals called classical liberalism "negative liberalism" because it was a philosophy that sought to liberate individual Liberalism human beings from the oppression of absolute monarchs, feudal economies, and official religions. Modern liberals however, were emphasising "positive liberalism". They declared that it is meaningless to guarantee people's freedom of speech if people can't feed their families or get a decend education. Instead of expelling the government from marketplace, modern liberals advocated bringing the government back in to protect people from sometimes-unfair economic system. Classical conservatism meant conserving society's traditional values and institutions against radical changes. It is better to look at classical conservatism as a set of general principles which are as follows: Irrational Impulses Classical Conservatives believed that people are only partly rational; they also have wildly irrational passions. Conservatism Order and Stability Conservatives prefer order and stability in order to promote liberty or civilisation. Gradual Change Most conservatives believe that things should change, but only gradually giving people time to adjust. Common Sense and Pragmatism Conservatives prefer to rely on experience. They are people of practical action rather Necessity of Government Conservatives believe that government is essential to maintain law and order in the country. They believed that only a government of talented and propertied elite could preserve the sacred rights of humans.  Modern conservatism is a modern attitude or a state of mind. They follow the ideas of Milton Friedman, the Nobel Prize-winning economist, and Frederich von Hayek. They argue that the free market is still the best route, that the Modern original doctrine of Adam Smith is right, and the government should regulate private business minimally or not at all. Entrepreneurs should be allowed freedom of enterprise to improve Conservatism businesses and create jobs and prosperity for others. On social and cultural issues, modern conservatism borrows from Edmund Burke a concern for tradition, especially in religion. Pat Robertson believe that government's highest obligation is to make sure that Americans are guided by traditional American values and institutions. They have been opposed to abortion, pornography, and many also oppose affirmative rights for groups, such as homosexuals. Modern conservatism is a blend of the economic ideas of Adam Smith and the traditionalist ideas of Edmund Burke. In short, conservatism is an ideology which considers human beings to be imperfect and hence, lays down limits to political activity. Marxism is based upon certain ideas which are as follows: Historical Materialism Revolution Marx believed that the way in which a society uses its The excessive exploitation of the proletariat, coupled with resources and produces its goods, determines its political the development of the capitalist society, would make a and social structures. social revolution inevitable. Surplus Value The Classless Society The revolution is followed by a short transition stage Workers produce things with their labour, but get paid between the destruction of capitalism and the only a fraction of the value of what they produce. The capitalists, who own the means of production, take the establishment of the new order. This stage is called rest. dictatorship meant to eliminate the last vestiges of capitalism and to stabilise the result of the revolution. The Class Struggle Once this mopping up operation is accomplished, there According to Marx, it is the conflict between the haves will emerge a just, productive society, in which there will and the have nots that moves history forward. be no class distinctions. Marxism or Scientific Socialism Edward Bernstein was the founder of the revisionist school of socialist theory. In 1899, he produced Evolutionary Socialism, which challenged some of the central Marxist tenets of the German Social Democratic Party. What are the salient characteristics of revisionism? Values Social democrats believed that Marx had given too much importance in bringing about socialist revolution. They argued that economics is undoubtedly an important motivator, but there are other factors that play a role as a political stimulant. Advancing Capitalism Social democrats argue that contrary to Marx's prediction, capitalism and capitalist class were increasing. Social Democracy  Evolutionary Socialism Social democrats argue that violent revolutionary socialism is inappropriate as a way of removing the evils of capitalism. Pragmatism Social democrats believed their cause would be better served by abandoning dogmatic theories and supporting pragmatic political policies to achieve socialism. They advocated working through existing European political systems by active political participation and by winning elections. The German Social Democrats (SPD) and other social democratic parties gradually dropped Marxism altogether from their documents. They moderated their positions, worked together with other parties, and won many more seats in election. Social Democracy  Marxism-Leninism is one of the three variants of Marxism. Marxism- Communism or Leninism was based on four principal propositions: Revolution in a backward country. Lenin argued that proletarian Marxism- revolution can take place in a backward country. It would have taken place in advanced industrialised lands as predicted by Karl Marx. The situation has changed where capitalism has become Leninism imperialistic, selling its product in overseas markets, in colonies, and making enormous profits. Imperialism was essential to capitalism. Those countries that could not maintain colonies, as in Spain and Russia were ripe to revolution. Communist Party. To promote the cause of revolution, it was essential to create an organised communist party composed of dedicated revolutionaries that possess the revolutionary consciousness. Without such a party, the workers would not develop a proper revolutionary consciousness and it would be impossible to achieve communism. Even after czarist government was destroyed, Lenin continued to maintain a similar view of the Communist Party.  3. Dictatorship of the Proletariat. In order to move from capitalism to communism, it was necessary to pass through a phase called dictatorship of the proletariat, that is, to turn over power entirely and exclusively to the working class. Communism or 4. Transition to Communism. Lenin argued that to make the transition from the stage of socialism to the stage of communism, it was necessary to construct socialism, which would not be achieved unless Marxism- capitalism had run its course. To Lenin, it is possible to construct socialism without going through the bourgeois state of economic and Leninism political development. Islam as an Ideology There is disagreement among scholars on the question of whether Islam is an ideology. They point out that ideologies are man-made, whereas Islam is divine. Islam is the second largest religion in the world. Some of the major characteristics of Islam as an ideology are as follows: Islam as an Ideology Simplicity, Rationalism and Practicality. Islam is a religion without any mythology. Its teachings are simple and intelligible. It is free from superstitions and irrational beliefs. There is no hierarchy of priest, and there are no rituals and complicated rites. Islam is a practical religion because in it, faith is not a mere profession of beliefs; it is very mainstream of life. Unity of Matter and Spirit. Islam stands not for life-denial but for life fulfilment. Islam does not believe in ascetism. Islam asks the believers to help others, even when one is economically hard- pressed, to pray for the peace of all mankind, and to administer justice to one's own self. Islam aims at establishing an equilibrium between two aspects of life the material and the spiritual. A Complete Way of Life. Islam provides guidance for all walks of life-individual and social, material and moral, economic and political, legal and cultural, national and international. Islam as an Ideology 4. Balance between the Individual and Society. Islam believes in the individual personality of man and holds everyone personally accountable to God. Islam neither neglects the individual nor society-it establishes a harmony and a balance between the two and assigns to each its proper due. 5. Universality and Humanism. In Islam, all men are equal irrespective of colour, language, race, or nationality. Islam addresses itself to the conscience of humanity and banishes all false barriers of race, status, and wealth. 6. The Economic System of Islam. Islam does not allow classes and forbids that wealth to circulate among a limited group of the rich. The Qur'an enjoins the believers to ensure that the wealth does not become a commodity to circulate among the rich. Islam established zakat and thus legalised state interference and set up the first institution of social security.  The term "Fascism" comes from the Latin word fasces which means bundle. Fascist ideas are borrowed from various sources including social Darwinists who believed in the principle of struggle for existence Fascism and survival of the fittest. The salient features of Fascism are as follows: ⚬ Totalitarianism. The essential feature of fascism is a belief in the absolute and totalitarian state. It plays a role in every aspect of society. ⚬ Nationalism. According to the fascists, the nation had a personality, a will, and an end of its own apart from those of the individuals. The nation was the supreme arbiter of the people whose duty was to serve the nation. ⚬ Antiliberalism. Fascism is antiliberal. It rejected the notion of democracy and constitutional government. ⚬ Militarism and Violence. Fascist glorify war and violence as a means of achieving political end at both domestic and international levels. ⚬ Leadership. The basic slogan of fascism was "one party, one leader". Fascism gave utmost regard to leaders who were worshipped as heroes or supermen. The leader is depicted as a genius who is capable of performing miraculous feats of leadership and heroism. Nationalism, Ethnonationalism, and Internationalism Carlton Hayes defines nationalism as "modern emotional fusion of two phenomena: patriotism and nationality. According to Shafer, "it is a varying combination of beliefs and conditions partly founded on myth and partly on reality. To Hans Kohn, " it is a state of mind, an act of consciousness, the individual 's act pf consciousness, the individual's identification of himself with the 'we-group' in which the loyalty of the individual is felt to be due the nation state". Nation implies , then, a collection of people who "belong together" because of common traits that they were born with or acquired from family and culture while growing up or simply because of a "living and corporate will."  As an ideology, nationalism emerged from the mixture of ideas and events from in Europe from 1789 until 1815. Origins and This period began with the French Revolution, and encompassed both Napoleon's imperial conquest and his final defeat by the anti- French European powers. Effects of Ideologically, the revolutionary regime repudiated all traditional claims to political authority, such as divine right, inheritance, and conquest. Instead, they believe that the principle of sovereignty Nationalism resides essentially in the nation. This ideology frightened the monarch of Europe, led to initially by the Austrian Hapsburg, and threatened the revolutionary regime. The French armed forces succeeded not only in defending their country, but in conquering large areas of Europe, spreading the doctrines of popular sovereignty and liberation from traditional religious and political authorities. French stirred up and intensified national feelings in other European countries, and traditional rulers exploited it to mobilise their populations Napoleon's forces. Giuseppe Mazzini claimed that human population is too enormous, and as such individuals can relate directly to others only through the nations into which God has divided mankind. Mazzini urged peoples of Europe to become aware of their unity and destiny, throw off alien monarchies, create their own free governments, and work in harmony with other people to realise God's purpose of leading humanity to a new age of happiness. Mazzini called upon Italians to reject all forms of individualism, to submerge themselves, even to the point of self sacrifice.  Nationalism has served as an ideology connected to a wide variety of political and economic interests. It has been linked with ideologies and movements of imperialism, racism, fascism, Nazism, socialism, and communism. Nationalism used by ambitious leaders who wanted to capture power or those who have newly risen to power. Uses and Abuses of Nationalism, as a support for new governing elites is clearly evident in most of the states that have been emerged from former Nationalism European colonial empires since the Second World War. ⚬ For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, there were 6000 distinct cultural-linguistic group, organised politically into bands, chiefdoms, principalities, and empires. ⚬ In competing for African colonies late in that century, European governments set off their territorial claims with arbitrarily drawn boundaries. ⚬ When leaders of anti-colonial nationalist movements gained independence for these European-created countries and become their new governing elites. they always insisted that the colonial boundaries be respected as the territorial borders of their new states.  Ethnonationalism is the belief that people should be governed only by rulers of the same ethnic groups. Ethnonational conflicts, sometimes severe and violent, have wrecked a majority of the newly independent-states at some point in the past few decades. For example, from 1967 to 1970, the large Ibo ethnic group attempted to secede from Nigeria and establish the independent state of Biafra in which it would be numerically dominant. By contrast, in 1970, Bengali leaders in East Pakistan declared its separation from West Pakistan, as the new sovereign state of Bangladesh. Nationalism is also an important ideological weapon in competitive struggles among ethnic groups for power and resources. The Palestine Liberation Organization claims to represent a nation deprived of its homeland and determined to retrieve its own country. Militantly opposing to that claim. Israelis believe their state to be the legitimate homeland of the long-exiled Jewish people, and brutally deny the distinctive "nationhood" of the Palestinian Arabs. Nationalism in a variety forms seems likely to remain a feature of the political world indefinitely. It can still provide an emotionally powerful focus for grievances and resentments against foreign domination. Ethnonationalism  Islam aims at destroying the chains of racial and national prejudices and unites all mankind on the basis of equal rights and opportunities for all. Nationalism gained currency in Muslim world in the wake of colonialism and was propagated, after the gradual withering away of the colonial system, by a new class of Western educated elite. Nationalism Nationalism represents a parallel ideology to that of Islam. It is incompatible with the concept of ummah on several grounds. ⚬ First, nationalism is a form of glorified tribalism which was and Islam rejected outright by the Prophet saying "He is not of us who claims and who dies the cause of tribal partisanship." ⚬ Second, nationalism is based on linguistic, geographical, cultural, racial, and other similar factors which are contrary to the Qur'anic conception of Ummah. ⚬ Third, nationalism, giving rise to the structure of the nation-state system, demands the promotion of its own interests to the exclusion of and, at times, at the cost of all others. The Qur'an demands of the ummah, instead of promotion of virtue and eschewing of vice, to cooperate "for the good, to the purpose of achieving piety" and to disagree with and oppose one another so as to prevent evil, to avoid crime, and stop aggression. ⚬ Fourth, nationalism intensifies the cultural plurality and social antagonism between various units and sub-units of the Muslim world. It militates against the idea of Muslim unity which is the essential feature of the ummah which is the universal system with one strong, comprehensive ideology.  Nationalism creates a spirit of intolerance. It was the prevalence Nationalism feelings of bitterness and hatred among the French and Germans which were partly responsible for the two World Wars. Every child in France was taught after 1871 that he or she was to and take revenge against Germany , who had humiliated France in 1871. Internationalism is the feeling that the individual is not only a Internationalism member of his state, but also a citizen of the world. Such a feeling promotes a peaceful cooperation among the states of the world. Internationalism depends upon the existence of nation-states. What it demands is that in the matters of external sovereignty, states must be prepared to accept certain limitations for the promotion of international peace. In practice, internationalism asks from the states the following: ⚬ States must be bound by the decisions of international organisations in matters which affect other states. ⚬ States must agree not to resort to war in order to settle disputes. ⚬ States must prevent any act of regression against itself or any other state and help the victim of aggression by any means possible.  Critics point out that internationalism cannot prosper as long as Nationalism nation-states survive. internationalism. Nationalism is a great challenge to Nations have violated international law in order to protect narrow and national interest. Nations also resist international mediations as violations of the Internationalism concept of national sovereignty. People all around the world, however believe that the nation-states must cooperate to achieve world peace. Feminism  Feminism is a collective term for systems of belief and theories that emphasize women's rights and their position in society. Feminism in Feminists are united by the idea that men and women should be equal politically, economically, and socially. Today's feminists are opposed to any social roles being a Nutshell determined by sex. They insist on equal pay, equal education, and equal opportunities in work. All women should be given the right to complete control over their productive lives, and hence ask for free contraception and abortion on demand at any stage of pregnancy. Feminist thinking has succeeded in drawing public attention to inequality between women and men and to the structure within society that belittle and work against women Feminism has also succeeded in challenging perception of women's skills, with the result that some women are entering non-traditional areas of female employment such as the construction industry.  The Liberalist on Feminism In A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Marry Mill argued for giving voting rights to women and Wollstonecraft challenged the conventions of the day equal rights in the areas of education and occupation. that the sole purpose of women were to bear and raise He argued that it is harmful to innate distinction children and to please men. She demanded equal between men and women. Rather, the treatment of rights for women in education, employment and women as equals would be beneficial for the administration. happiness and advancement of humanity. In her Enfranchisement of Women (1851), Harriet In the 20th century, feminism began to attract a large Taylor argued strongly in favour of married women following. having a life and career of their own. Entering the workforce encouraged them to become John Stuart Mill, believed in male-female friendship of more independent and to demand that their husbands' marriage. Such friendship was not only desirable for share in household and child-rearing duties. emotional satisfaction, but also essential for the progression of human society. Approaches to Feminism  The Marxist on Feminism the Marxist insist that the state as an institution is an Marxist believe that ideology arises in order to justify instrument of the dominant class to exploit the existing material conditions and gender status in subordinate class in society. society. In other words, sexual asymmetry is explained Marxist approach to the state received a systematic by the different relationships of men and women to treatment in the writings of Marx, Engels, Gramsci, the means of production. Miliband, Poulantzas, and many others According to Engels, the oppression of women is In Marx's own words "The executive of the modern linked to the emergence of private property. state is but a committee for managing the common Men formed private families because they wanted to affairs of the whole bourgeoisie, and that political bequeath their possessions to their children, thereby power is organised power of one class for oppressing replacing mother-right with patrilineality. another." Women became dependents because their production Marxist feminists consider gender status to be the was relegated to private sphere, that is, within the outcome of economic factors rather than cultural family unit. values. Approaches to Feminism  The Marxist on Feminism According to Marxists, the only solution to ending This assumption is tenable because there will still have sexual asymmetry is to bring women back into the to be mechanism for articulating, representing, sphere of social production. mediating, and ultimately deciding between Engels said "The first condition for the liberation of the alternative forms and modes of satisfying human wife is to bring the whole female sex back into public needs. industry and that this in turn demands that the Critics claim that sexism, not classism, fundamentally characteristics of the monogamous family as the constitutes the inequality and that it will not be economic unit of society be abolished. resolved by the abolition of class society. Critics of the Marxist approach argue that Marxists In essence, although gender inequality may be assume that with the abolition of the fundamental biologically determined, biological differences distortion of class rule, the problem of stable between sexes are by no means unchangeable. representation of diverse group interests resulting from the division of labour will be easily solved. Approaches to Feminism  The Islamic School and Feminism The Islamic school argues that "Western-style feminist Afshar summarised their arguments in the following struggles have liberated women only to the extent that ways: they are prepared to become sex objects and market ⚬ Islamic dictum bestows complementarity on their sexuality as an advertising tool to benefit women, as human beings, as partners to men, and patriarchal capitalism. as mothers and daughters. On the contrary, Islamic school of thought argues that ⚬ Islam demands respect for women and offers them women could benefit by returning to the original opportunities to be learned, educated, and trained, sources of Islam. while at the same time providing an honoured space for them to become mothers, wives, and housemakers. ⚬ Islam recognises the importance of women's life cycle. They have been given different roles and responsibilities at different times of their lives and they are respected for that. Approaches to Feminism  The Islamic School and Feminism Throughout the Quran, it is repeated over and over There is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking that men and women are created as companions on employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in earth to complement and comfort one another. positions which fit her nature and in which society needs her A woman under Islamic law is vested with all the rights most. which belong to her as an independent human being. The thinking of most Muslims is governed by a number of No one, not even her father can force her to marry social, psychological, and economic traditions. against her expressed consent. First, the shariah emphasises the role of extended rather than In Islam, a woman has basic freedom of choice and the nuclear family as the unit of society. expression based on recognition of her individual Some Muslim families are "residentially extended" in the sense personality. that their members live communally with three or more According to Islamic law, a woman's right to her generations of relatives in a single building. money, real estate, or other properties is fully Second, Islamic traditions prescribe a much stronger acknowledge. participation of the family in contracting and preservation of marriages. Approaches to Feminism  The Islamic School and Feminism Fourth, Islam specifies a differentiation of male and In the Qur'an, no difference whatever is made is made female roles and responsibilities in society. between sexes. Feminism has generally denied any such Finally, the Qur'an and the shari'ah categorically demands differentiation. a separate legal status for women. In the case of Western feminism, the roles providing This separate legal personality prescribes for every woman financial support, of success in career, and of decision the right to contract, to conduct business, and to earn and making have been given overwhelming respect and possess property independently. concern, while those dealing with domestic matters Marriage has no effects on woman's legal status, her were devalued and even despised. property, her earnings, and even on her name. Islam instead maintains that both type of roles are If she commits any civil offenses, her penalty is neither less equally deserving of pursuit and respect and that when nor more than a man's in a similar case (5:83; 24:2). accompanied by the equity demanded by the religion, The feminist demand for separate legal status for women a division of labour along sex lines is generally is, therefore, on that is equally espoused by Islamic beneficial to society. traditions. Approaches to Feminism Thank You