Unit 5. Political Parties: Electoral and Party Systems PDF

Unit 5. Political parties: electoral and party systems. Introduction to Political Science. 2024/2025. Irene Lanzas Index  1. Political ideologies.  2. The role of elections and electoral systems.  3. Party systems. 1. Political ideologies. (I) Definition of ideology.  There are multiple defin...

Unit 5. Political parties: electoral and party systems. Introduction to Political Science. 2024/2025. Irene Lanzas Index  1. Political ideologies.  2. The role of elections and electoral systems.  3. Party systems. 1. Political ideologies. (I) Definition of ideology.  There are multiple definitions of ideology. For some authors, ideology is something perverse to be rid of (Marx), while others hold a more neutral view of it.  However, the origin of the term is very clear: the word was first used during the French Revolution by Antoine Destutt de Tracy. It referred to a new ‘science of ideas’, literally an ‘idea-logy’. The original meaning of the term has had little impact on its subsequent use.  Its trajectory as a key political term stems from Karl Marx's use of it:  It has to do with deception and mystification, with projecting a false or misguided worldview.  It is linked to the class system.  It is a manifestation of power.  It is a temporary phenomenon. 1. Political ideologies. (II)  The Marxist theory of ideology was most developed by Antonio Gramsci, who argued that the capitalist class system is sustained not only by unequal political and economic power but also by what he called the ‘hegemony’ of the ideas and theories of the bourgeoisie.  The Frankfurt School was interested in capitalism's ability to achieve stability through the manufacture of legitimacy (Marcuse).  There are also conservative conceptions of ideology: Michael Oakshott conceived of it as an abstract system of thought called upon to simplify and deform social reality because it attempts to explain what is in every way incomprehensible. 1. Political ideologies. (III) Michael Freeden's definition of ideology.  Ideologies are ‘configurations of meanings of political concepts, characterised by a morphology that arranges nuclear, adjacent and peripheral concepts’.  Ideologies reflect and seek to determine substantive and collective understandings of the political world; and they compete over the control of political language as a vital means of shaping and directing society.  To monopolise, channel or contain understandings of what is the language of society is also to command over its practices and processes. As such, ideologies influence decision-making and the creation of frameworks of thought.  ‘Ideology is presented as a type of political discourse that relates political concepts and, through their inclusion in certain groups, fixes a meaning for those concepts’ (Freeden). Nolan’s chart 1. Political ideologies. (IV)  Most important ideologies:  Liberalism.  Conservatism.  Socialism and social democracy.  Nationalism.  Anarchism.  Fascism.  Feminism.  Environmentalism. 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (I) Functions of elections.  Generate participation.  Recruit politicians on the basis of trust (does not follow merit and ability).  Form governments (basic to accountability).  Provide representation (and channel the demands of society as a whole).  Influence public policy (democratic control).  Educating voters and enabling debate.  Building legitimacy (of government and the legal system). 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (II) Characteristics of suffrage:  Universal: the right to vote is available to all citizens, with no exclusions on the basis of any condition or circumstance of a discriminatory nature.  Active. (you vote)  Passive. (you can be voted)  Free: this requires political pluralism, open access to the electoral process, periodicity of elections and the effective possibility of deciding on the permanence or replacement of governmental power.  Equal: Every voter must be allocated the same number of votes (usually one). Traditionally there were people entitled to more than one vote because of ownership criteria. Due to the formulas for calculating the vote (under-representation of urban areas), we speak of an ‘equal value’ vote.  Direct: There must be no intermediaries, it is not a transferable right. Indirect elections consist of electing delegates who will elect the rulers (USA, this is considered to be a formal criterion).  Secret: This guarantees the voter's free choice. 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (III) Components of electoral systems. (how many seats are for your candidate(s)) 1. Electoral constituency: set of electors based on which, according to the distribution of votes, the allocated seats are distributed. Its size does not depend on territorial extension or demographic size, but on the number of seats allocated. In some places (Israel or the Netherlands) the constituency is unique, or in elections to the European Parliament). The higher the number of seats allocated to a constituency, the more accurate the proportionality of the system. a. Single-member constituencies: a single Member of Parliament is elected. They usually coincide with majority formulas. Closer to the electorate and greater recognition of candidates, but greater clientelism and localism, difficult to represent minorities. b. Plurinominal constituencies: two or more seats are elected. They usually coincide with proportional formulas. 2. Form of candidacy: (in which order people vote members) a. Single-member: there is only one candidate. b. List: the relevant factor will be the attachment of candidates to party lists. i. Closed and blocked lists (Spain): the list cannot be altered; they are blocked because the internal order of the candidacy cannot be changed. ii. Unblocked lists: a voter votes for the list presented by a party, but the voter can change the order of candidates. iii. Open lists: candidates can be chosen from different parties and their order of preference can be established. There is greater proximity to politicians, but it increases their prominence and favours corruption. 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (IV) 3. Voting structure: form of casting or expression of the vote, closely linked to the form of the candidacy. a) Single vote: there is only one single vote (single candidate or single list). b) Multiple voting: as many votes as seats (open and unblocked lists). There are sub- variants: limited voting, preferential, double… 4. Legal barrier: minimum number of votes each party needs to pass in order to qualify for the electoral formula and be eligible for the allocation of seats. This can be a minimum percentage of votes (between 1.5% and 5% depending on the country) or a pre-determined number of votes. 5. Electoral formula: the mathematical calculation by which seats are distributed on the basis of the electorate's votes. a. Majority formulas: i. Absolute majority: can be two rounds (France) or successive ballots. ii. Relative majority: the party that obtains the most votes in a constituency wins all the votes. iii. Other: alternative vote, limited, single non-transferable, split, etc. b. Proportional formulas: Hare, Sainte-Laguë, modified Sainte-Laguë, Droop, Imperiale, Hagenbach-Bischoff, D'Hondt. 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (V) Majoritarian electoral systems  They favour governance and accountability, prevent excessive parliamentary fragmentation and avoid parliamentary crises.  Critics argue that this system distorts popular suffrage and reduces representativeness. It artificially privileges two major parties at the expense of the others. This system induces apathy in society and favours clientelism.  USA, Great Britain, France (in presidential elections), Canada. Proportional electoral systems  There is a more even distribution of electoral results. Responds better to reasons of fairness and pluralism. It offers a higher degree of political competitiveness, respects the rights of minorities, facilitates consensus governments and favours parliamentary control of the government by the opposition. It encourages an honest vote and favours participation.  Cons: Facilitates the splitting of the party system, unstable governments. As there is no parliamentary majority, it dilutes political responsibility. It favours the existence of extremist options. 2. The role of elections and electoral systems. (VI) The Spanish case:  General elections: (proportional)  Congreso de los Diputados: 350 deputies, closed and blocked lists, D'Hondt formula, legal barrier of 3%. Plurinominal constituency.  Senado: variable number of senators. Direct election, open lists, multi-member constituencies and limited voting (cannot establish order). Indirectly elected senators are chosen by the regional parliaments.  Comunidades autónomas: each one has its own system. In general: plurinominal, d'Hondt and closed and blocked lists. Legal barrier between 3 and 5%.  Local elections: closed and blocked lists, d'Hondt, legal barrier of 5%. Single constituency.  European elections: single constituency, d'Hondt, closed and blocked lists, and no legal barrier. 3. Party systems. (I)  In any organised community there is a diversity of ideologies, interests and values, a diversity which must have political expression and be reflected in those who represent society and are responsible for leading it.  It is the political parties which transform social pluralism into political pluralism and which, as mediators between civil society and the state, have the obligation to ensure that political pluralism is present in the institutions.  Parties have their raison d'être in political regimes based on a system of representation. They aim to obtain sufficient parliamentary representation to be able to create a given political project.  The main objective of the parties is the attainment of power, considered as an instrument of transformation and improvement of society, and to achieve this power, it is necessary for the different parties to confront each other in the context of a peaceful and rational struggle to obtain social support. 3. Party systems. (II) Definition of political party.  The concept of a political party has evolved over time.  Definition: an association of individuals united by the defence of certain interests, organised internally through a hierarchical structure, with a desire for permanence over time and whose objective would be to achieve political power, exercise it and carry out a political programme.  In democracy, there must be more than one party.  Easton: parties are channels for transmitting the demands of the population to the public authorities, through which they decide what public policies should be implemented to guarantee peaceful coexistence and social progress. 3. Party systems. (III) Functions of parties.  Political socialisation and opinion-forming. This function has become less and less important and has been taken over by the media.  Harmonisation of interests. Government programmes serve to harmonise the partial interests of the population.  Formation of political elites. Parties monopolise electoral activity and decide who the candidates are.  Channelling of the population's demands to the institutions.  Strengthening and stabilisation of the political system. With the exception of anti-system parties. 3. Party systems. (IV) Party systems.  The party system depends on the configuration of the electoral system (majoritarian systems discourage the formation of small parties).  Sartori's classification: 1. Single-party systems: systems in which there is only one party that monopolises political power and does not allow other formations (non-democratic). a. Totalitarian one-party systems: uses repression, has a strong ideological burden that it imposes. b. Authoritarian one-party systems: they do not have a strong ideology or a desire to penetrate all public and private spheres of society. c. Pragmatic one-party systems: a party with little ideology and cohesion, which bases its activity on practical criteria and efficiency, is above political power. It is a more flexible and pluralistic system, with a certain degree of openness. 2. Hegemonic party systems: allows the existence of other parties, but not political competition for the exercise of power. There is a party that monopolises power, and other parties that are legal but can never attain it. There is an image of political pluralism, but it is false because there is no possibility of alternation. There can be repression. 3. Party systems. (V) 3. Predominant party systems: there is a party that obtains the support of a large majority, governs with an absolute majority, but there is political pluralism. The predominant party may cease to be predominant at any time. Obtaining an absolute majority three times in a row may be a sufficient indicator. 4. Two-party systems: there are two main parties that win almost all the seats, with a small difference between them. One or the other party governs without the need for coalitions with third parties, and there is an expectation of alternation. Electoral competition is centripetal: they seek the electorate between the two parties (the undecided). They tend to have moderate ideologies. 5. Party systems with limited or moderate pluralism: the number of major parties is larger (three to five). Governments tend to be coalition governments, as they do not win enough seats for an absolute majority. Single-party governments may be unstable. There are usually two coalition alternatives (bipolar structure, composed of alternative coalitions rather than alternative parties). 6. Polarised or extreme pluralist party systems: more than five major and ideologically distanced parties. No party gets an absolute majority of seats, there are coalitions. There are many possible coalitions, which tend to exclude the extremes (which become even more radicalised) and revolve around more centrist parties. The structure of the system is multipolar, with greater political polarisation and ideological distance.