Political Science BA Sem 1 PDF

Director : Professor Harsh Gandhar Department Co-ordinator : Dr. Kamla Course Leader : Dr. Kamla Class : B.A. Sem.- I, SUBJECT: POLITICAL SCIENCE (i) Introduct...

Director : Professor Harsh Gandhar Department Co-ordinator : Dr. Kamla Course Leader : Dr. Kamla Class : B.A. Sem.- I, SUBJECT: POLITICAL SCIENCE (i) Introductory Letter (ii) Syllabus CONTENTS L.No. Title Author Page UNIT -I 1 Political Science: Meaning, Definition Kanwar Deep Singh 1 and Scope 2 Relationship of Political Science with History Kanwar Deep Singh 19 and Economics 3 Relationship of Political Science with Sociology Dr.Emanual Nahar 29 UNIT -II 4 The State Shayama 34 5 Theories of the Origin of the State: Dr.Nirmal Singh 47 Social Contract Theory 6 Theories of the Origin of the State: Historical/ Dr.Kamla 65 Evolutionary Theory of the Origin of the State UNIT- III 7 State: Liberal View Dr.Nirmal Singh 71 8 State: Marxian View Dr.Nirmal Singh 82 9 State: Gandhian View Dr.Kamla 94 10 Welfare State: A Neo-Liberal Perspective Navneet Kaur 106 L.No. Title Author Page UNIT- IV 11 Welfare State: A Socialist Perspective Navneet Kaur 118 12 Sovereignty: Definition, Attributes and Types Prof. Surinder K. Shukla/ 127 Dr.Emanual Nahar 13 Sovereignty: Monoistic and Pluralist Prof. Surinder K. Shukla/ 138 Dr.Emanual Nahar 14 Political System: Meaning and Characteristics Suman Gupta 144 15 Political System: Almond and Powell’s Suman Gupta 156 Structural Functional Analysis Vetter :Dr. Kamla E-Mail of Department - [email protected] Contact No. Of Department - 0172-2534332  (i) INTRODUCTORY LETTER Dear Learner, We welcome you on joining the Ist Semester of B.A. in CDOE. We congratulate you on opting political science as an elective paper.This paper will open new avenues for Employment. This will help you in clearing competitive Exams like UPSC and will also provide you a solid base if you choose Journalism and other profession like this. In B.A. Ist, through this paper you will be able to understand the basic concepts and theories of state like Gandhism, Liberalism and Marxism. Apart from studying writer material, CDOE also organises Person Contact Programme with the ‘objective’ of Personal Interaction of the students with the teachers to solve these problems. With Best Wishes Dr.Kamla Dptt. Of Political Science CDOE  (ii) POLITICAL SCIENCE B.A. (GENERAL) FIRST YEAR (SEMESTER SYSTEM) SYLLABUS SEMESTER - I POLITICAL THEORY-I Max. Marks: 100 Theory: 90 marks Internal Assessment: 10 marks Time: 3 hours Objectives: The objective of this paper is to introduce first year undergraduate students to some of the basic aspects, concepts and themes in the discipline of PoliticalScience. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PAPER-SETTER AND THE CANDIDATES: (a) There shall be 9 questions in all. (b) In Question No. One, 15 short answer type questions be asked spreading over whole syllabus to be answered in 10-20 words each. The students shall have to attempt 9 short answer type questions i.e. 2 marks of each. It shall carry 18 marks and shall be a compulsory question. (c) Rest of the paper shall contain 4 Units. Each Unit shall have two questions and the candidates shall be given internal choice. The candidates shall attempt one question from each Unit i.e. 4 in all of 18 marks each. (d) For private and reappear candidates, who have not been assessed earlier for internal assessment, the marks secured by them in theory paper will proportionately be increased to maximum marks of the paper in lieu of internal assessment. The paper-setter must put note (d) in the question paper. Unit-I 1. Political Sciene: Meaning, Definition and Scope. 2. Relationship of Political Science with Economics, History and Sociology. Unit-Il 1. The State: Definition, Elements and its Distinction from Government and Society. 2. (iii)Contract, Historical/Evolutionary. Theories of the Origin of State: Social Unit-III 1. State:Liberal, Marxian and Gandhian View. 2. Welfare State: Liberal and Socialist Prespective  Unit-IV 1. Sovereignty: Definition, Attributes/Characteristics and Types. 2. Theories of Sovereignty: Monistic and Pluralistic. 3. Political System : a) Meaning, Characteristics. Political System : b) Functions according to David Easton Almond & Powell. Books Recommended : 1. J.C. Johri : Principles of Modern Political Science,Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 2009. 2. A.C. Kapoor : Principles of Political Science, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, 2009. 3. O.P. Gauba : An Introduction to Political Theory,MacmillanIndiaLtd., New Delhi,2009. 4. Andrew Heywood : Political Ideologies : An lntroduction,Third Edition, Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. 5. RobertA. Dahl& Bruce S. : Modern Political Analysis,Sixth Edition, FinebricKner Pearson Education, 2003. 6. Frank Bealey, Richard Chapman : Elements in Political and Michael Sheehan Science,EdinburghUniversity Press, Edinburgh, 1999. 7. Andrew Heywood : Political Theory:Anlntroduction,Macmillan Press, London, 1999. 8. Aron I. Skoble&Fiber R. Maclian : Political Philosophy (eds.) :EssentialSelections,Pearson Education, 1999. 9. Andrew Heywood : Politics, Macmillan, London, 1997. 10. M.P. Jain : Political Theory, Authors Guild Publication, Delhi (Punjabi & Hindi) 1990. 11. S.P. Verma : Political Theory,Geetanjali Publishing House, New Delhi, 1983.  Lesson-1 POLITICAL SCIENCE: MEANING, DEFINITION AND SCOPE Structure: 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Origin and Evolution of Political Science as an Independent Discipline 1.3 Important Definitions of Political Science 1.4 Meaning of Political Science: Traditional View 1.5 Meaning of Political Science: Modern View 1.6 Nature of Political Science 1.7 Scope of Political Science 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Further Readings 1.11 Model Questions 1.0 OBJECTIVES: After reading this lesson, you will be able to :  trace the origin and evolution of Political Science as an Independent Subject  understandthe meaning of Political Science according to Traditional and Modern Views.  explain the Nature of Political Science  discuss the Scope of Political Science 1.1 INTRODUCTION We all are acquainted with the term ‘Political Science’. Ever since man started living an organized social life, Politics has come to play a very important role. As we all know, Political Science is concerned with different political activities of human beings. However, at different stages of history Political Science has connoted different meanings and its scope is continuously widening. Though Political Science has been discussed by different political thinkers since ancient time, the history of Political Science as an academic discipline is not very old. Besides, Political Science is also linked with different other disciplines.  Political Science found its first systematic exposition in the writings of Greek Philosophers. Plato (427-347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) were the two early Greek Political philosophers who made far reaching and lasting contributions in the field of Political Science. In his famous book the Republic, Plato justified moral significance of the state, its organic unity, its educational functions and above all its supremacy over the individuals. Aristotle is said to be the intellectual child of Plato and in his famous book the Politics, he first developed a systematic study of Political Science as an independent academic discipline. The Greeks were the first people who developed Political Science in the pure and systematic form. Sub-sequently, it spread over all other countries and its study has assumed great importance in modern times. The term Politics was first used by Aristotle and he called it “the master science”. The word Politics is derived from the Greek word polis meaning a city. To the Greeks the city was the state and the subject that dealt with the City-State and its problems was designated as politics. 1.2 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AS AN INDEPENDENT DISCIPLINE The primary development of political science originated from the time of Plato. Greek Philosopher who systematically analyzed the political system of the ancient state of Greece. Plato and Aristotle were two political scientists in the ancient Greece who continuously quest for the systematic analysis on the political system of the city-state. Although, Aristotle was the Father of Political Science, the work of Plato on “The Republic” gave him the recognition as the parent of political philosophy. The “Republic” was the first systematic study of the political process that generated the ideal of elite politicians who used more on rationality to govern the state. On the other hand, Aristotle was the first political scientist who excelled in the field of science, logic and politics. He was Greek philosopher who was also a student of Plato and known to be the tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle made generalization about the political consequences of the various constitutional processes. Aristotle is regarded as the Father of Political Science, because of his far reaching and permanent contributions in the field of political Science.His political advocacy was the establishment of written rules of governance and made comprehensive analysis of the political culture of the community. As result of the evolving principles and concepts of political science, the original ideas of Plato and Aristotle on government and state had fully realized in the systematic study of political organizations and institution in the contemporary time. The political manifestation of the idea of Aristotle generated the fundamental study on the law of the land through the formulation, enactment and application of constitution. As a written law of the state, it provides information of the basic political structure, processes and systems of governance. Later, Christian religious thinkers like St. Augustine and St.Thomas Aquinas, also dwelt upon the idea of an ideal state and sought to derive moral and ethical principles regarding the same. Accordingly, in the classical (Greek) and Christian formulations, Political Science was more in the realm of political philosophy focusing on the study of state. In the fifteenth century, Niccolo Machiavelli, the Italian political thinker, started the tradition of studying existing and historical political institutions. It marked a departure from the classical and Christian traditions of political philosophy. Efforts were made to identify institutional arrangements that would maintain social order and political stability. Accordingly, political thinkers subsequently tried to deal with the historical origins of different political institutions and their structural frameworks. In 15th century, Jean Bodin (1530-1596) finally coined the term “Political Science” based on the organization of institution related to law. It must be noted that the contemporary definition of political science entails in the application of law in the different branches of government. However, a more complete definition of political science when Montesquieu (1689-1755) describe it as the distribution of the different function among separate organizations along legislation, execution and adjudication of law. However, it must be mentioned here that the origin of Political Science as an academic discipline is not very old. Many thinkers have contributed towards the growth of Political Science as a discipline. In this context, the name of Francis Lieber, who was a professor of History and Political Science at Columbia University, needs special mention. His work ‘Civil Liberty and Self Government’ has made significant contribution towards the growth of Political Science as an academic discipline. Another landmark in the growth of Political Science was the establishment of a School of Political Science at Columbia University at the initiative of John. W. Burgess in 1880. It was called the Faculty of Political Science. In 1886 this school inaugurated the Political Science Quarterly which was the first scholarly journal of Political Science as a discipline. It heralded a new era in the growth of the discipline as it gave scholars a new platform to express their views in writing. The establishment of Johns Hopkins University in 1876 was another milestone in the growth of Political Science. In this context, the establishment of Johns Hopkins Historical and Political Science Association in 1877 and The Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science are worth mentioning. Accordingly, the above two universities- Columbia and Johns Hopkins, contributed significantly towards the growth of Political Science as an academic discipline. The studies and research carried out in these universities also widened the scope of Political Science which was earlier confined to the study of political institutions and historical origin. The subject subsequently began to embrace various concepts like rights, justice, law, sovereignty while analyzing the functioning of governments. The political thinkers also started discussing the merits and demerits of various forms of governments, political institutions etc. The establishment of the American Political Science Association in 1903 provided a boost towards the strengthening of Political Science as a discipline. It soon became a leading organization for the study of political science and provided a platform for different scholars, departments and institutions from the discipline of Political Science. It also widened the scope of Political Science beyond the study of political philosophy and institutions. During the 1920s, Political Science made a paradigm shift in the form of the positivist movement. It sought to make the study of Political Science scientific by applying empirical and statistical methods. The Social Science Research Council was chartered in 1923 to encourage scientific research in Economics, Sociology and Political Science. The positivist movement culminated in the behavioural revolution of the 1950s. The growth of behaviouralism can be regarded as the major landmark in the growth of Political Science as a discipline. The behaviouralists put emphasis on making the study of Political Science scientific. They were influenced by the developments and research in different disciplines and they tried to make the study of Political Science inter- disciplinary. In order to draw scientific conclusions the behaviouralism advocated the use of statistical methods and tools in the study of Political Science. Thus, with the emergence of behaviouralism the character of Political Science had changed to a large extent. Behaviouralism shifted the focus of Political Science from the study of political institutions to the study of day –to day behaviour of the individuals in a political society. Political thinkers like David Easton, Charles E. Merriam, Arthur Bentley contributed significantly through their writings and research towards the growth of behavioural revolution in Political Science. After the Second World War and in the early fifties of the twentieth century, Political Science was highly influenced by sociologists like Tocqueville, G. Mosca, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons etc. Such an interaction between political scientists and sociologists helped to bring the study of Political Science closer to society. For instance, the concept of the state, which had been central to Political Science, gave way to the new concept of the “political system,” developed by David Easton. The new concept highlighted the interaction between the society and the political process. During this period the behavioural revolution in Political Science became popular and various methods of research and techniques of data collection were identified by the political thinkers. The Social Science Research Council of United States set up in the early twenties of twentieth century continued to play an important role in popularizing behavioural ideas in the post Second World War era. Political Science entered a new phase towards the late 1960s in the form of the Post-behavioural revolution. The rise of behaviouralism clearly introduced a scientific vigour in the study of political phenomena. However, it soon came to be realized that too much emphasis was being laid on adoption of scientific techniques in the field of Political Science. In the process, Political Science was losing touch with the real social and political issues. Therefore, post-behaviouralists made an effort to make Political Science relevant to the society. However, it must be remembered that post-behaviouralism cannot be separated from behviouralism as it has emerged out of behaviouralism. Through using different techniques and methods, the post-behaviouralists have tried to overcome the drawbacks of behaviouralism and make the study of Political Science more relevant to the society. Thus, we can see that the Political Science which emerged as a study of the state and government has undergone tremendous changes in the later period. Because of the contribution of different scholars its scope is widening and its nature is changing. In the present time, the focus of Political Science shifts from the study of the state and government to the political system as a whole. Many books have been written on Political Science by the eminent writers and different definitions have been given.Asper usual of these definitions shows that the authors themselves do not have very clear-cut views and they find it difficult to give precise definitions. Evidently, describing the contents of a subject is easier than giving a precise definition. Many political ideas have been developed and accumulated in course of time. It is difficult to put different ideas within a limited scope of single definition.When one examines an array of standard definitions, one is bound to be staggered at the nature of their diversity. This diversity in defining Political Science is due to the varying scope of Political Science in different times. Since its emergence as a scientific study, Political Science has been growing in its scope. Hence the old definitions of Political Science cannot suit the twenty-first century version of Political Science. One may further examine some standard definitions of Political Science, given by eminent political scientists. 1.3 Important Definitions of Political Science   Gettell- Political Science deals with the associations of human beings that form Political units with the organization of their governments and with the activities of thesegovernment in making and administering law in carrying on inter-state relations.  Bluntschli- Political Science is the science which is concerned with the State, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its various forms of manifestations and development.  Caitlin- For the text books, politics means either the activities of political life or the study of these activities. And these activities are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.  Seeley- Political Science investigates the phenomena of Government in the same manner as Political Economy deals with wealth, biology with life, Algebra with numbers and Geometry with space and magnitude.  Laski-The study of Politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized states.  David Easton-Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values in a society.  Harold Lasswell- Politics is the science of who gets what, when any why.  Lasswell and Kaplan- “Political Science is the study of shaping and sharing of power”.Lasswell regards political science as “policy science’.He gives a positivist and non-normative meaning to the definition of politics. He also writes, “The study of politics is the study of influence and the influential. The science of politics states conditions; the philosophy of politics justifies preferences.”  Max Weber– “the struggle for power or influencing of those in power.” Further, it includes within its study the struggle between the State and the individuals and between the organised groups and the State.  Bryce-Politics is the conduct of public affairs for private advantage.  Hillman:Politics is the science of who gets what, when and why.  Bottomore:Political institutions are concerned with the distribution of powers in society.  Garner- The meaning of the term “politics” is confined to that of the business and activity which has to do with the actual conduct of affairs of the State. 1.4 MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE: TRADITIONAL VIEW According to the traditional Political Scholars, Political Science was mainly the study of State and Government.They focused on legal, institutional and structural aspects of State Government and Law. According to the traditional view:  i. The State is the central theme of Political Science. Political Science studies about the State, its origin, its nature, its functions and so on. Hence, Political Science may also be defined as : a historical investigation of what the State has been, an analytical study of what the State is and a politico ethical speculation of what the State ought to be.Political Science, as narrowly conceived, is the science of the State. As it is a study about the State, it makes an enquiry into the origin of the State and the political authority. In this sense, it is a historical investigation about the origin of the State.Political Science also studies about the structure and functioning of the State, Governments, inter-state organization, etc. In this sense, it is an analytical study of what the State. ii. Political Science does not confine its area to the past and present study of states only. It also attempts to formulate principles of good government or in other words, it suggests what the State ought to be. iii. Political Science not only deals with the State and government, but also deals with law. Men should be ruled by law. Law is necessary to regulate social life and without law there would be chaos and confusion. Law regulates and controls the behaviour of the man. It prevents anarchy. Hence, Political Science deals with the State, Government and law. iv. Political Science is a social science. As a social science, it deals with relationship of man with man. It also makes an attempt to explore the ideal relationship between man and the State. Aristotle rightly said; “The State originates in the bare needs of life and continues for the sake of good life.”How man should adjust himself with society is a major concern of political science. It deals with freedom of individuals. Maximum State intervention leads to loss of liberty. How individual liberty should be safeguarded is an eternal problem in political science. Thus, according to traditional political scientists,Political science is mainly: a study about the State and the Government. It makes an enquiry into the origin of the state. Political Science also studies the structure and functioning of the state government inter-state organizations etc. In this sense it is an analytical study of what the state is. It also attempts to formulate principles of good government, or in other words it suggests what the state ought to be. It is sometimes said that Political Science deals with the reality, while political philosophy tries to determine what they ought to do in keeping with the ultimate good or purpose of human life. Political philosophy may properly be recognized by its critical function. Political Science is concerned with the theoretical explanation of Political reality, namely the phenomenon of the State. It attempts to discuss the forms of political organization and logical justification of the state. It studies the relationship between the sate and the individual 1.5 MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE: MODERN VIEW Political Science, is the systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally scientific methods of analysis.As traditionally defined and studied, political science examines the state and its organs and institutions. The contemporary discipline, however, is considerably broader than this, encompassing studies of all the societal, cultural, and psychological factors that mutually influence the operation of government and the body politic.  The term Politics has acquired a new meaning in the context of advancements of late made in the discipline of Political Science. It hinges upon the political activity carried on human environment, in time and space, and thus a product of economy, the society, history and geography. Political activity is based on agreement and whenever there is freedom a great deal of politics is likely to be found. This follows because men have diverse views, interests and characteristics.  Political Science is the systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally scientific methods of analysis. As traditionally defined and studied, political science examines the state and its organs and institutions. The contemporary discipline, however, is considerably broader than this, encompassing studies of all the societal, cultural, and psychological factors that mutually influence the operation of government and the body politic  Political Science is a scientific study of the State – its nature, condition, origin and developments – and government, their functions and purposes and the institutions they foster in order to make the task of “good life” possible. A student of Political Sciences will know something of society whose political system is involved, its history and traditions, its physical and human environments in order to assess to what extent the existing intuitions fulfil the aspirations of the people and help in achieving the goal of good life.  The term politics now-a-days refers to the problems of government. As such now-a-days a politician means a man who is interested in the current problems of the day and not necessarily in the study of the state- its nature, origin and characteristics. He is not a student of political science but a member of political party. His activity is confined to the actual conduct of the government. He works either in the policy-making office or law-making legislature, or in the office or platform of the party he belongs. But a political scientist is a student of political science; he is concerned with the body of knowledge relating to the phenomena of the state. His place of work is not the office of the government or the party but the library. Thus between a politician and political scientist there may not necessarily be a conflict, but their function are quite separate. So, though there is a difference between the politician and political scientist, the view that 'there must always be a conflict between the politician and the political scientist' is not correct. In fact, to be a good politician, a man must be first a political scientist. A man may simultaneously prove himself a politician and political scientist.  Robert Dahl is of the opinion that every human association has a political aspect and it is in this context that he defines political system. A political system, he says, “is any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves, to a significant extent, power, rule, or authority”. He would, accordingly include in his definition of a political system all sorts of human associations, as private clubs, business firms, religious organizations, civil groups, primitive tribes, clans, “perhaps even families”.W.WWilloughby- Political Science is the science which has for its object the ascertainment of political facts and arrangement of them in systematic order as  determined by the logical and casual relations which exist between them. According to Paul Janet, Political Science “is that part of social science which treats the foundations of the State and principles of government have their roots in the past and their branches swing towards the future. It is a systematic study which goes deep into the political problems of yesterday for the benefit of today and utilizes the wisdom gained there form for the aspirations of better tomorrow.  Politics, as such, is striving to share power, or to influence its distribution as well as the actual exercise of such power. Lasswell and Kaplan, according, definite Politics “as an empirical discipline, (as) the study of the shaping and sharing of power” and “a political act (as) one performed in power perspectives” in every phase of the society.  Politics is, thus, a struggle for power on all the three levels it can be looked at- State, intra-State and inter-State- and it is of the same species. The role of leadership as well as the struggle for leadership is inherent in the game of politics. It follows that every society or group requires some power over other people which is recognized by a sufficiently large number of people as legitimate and acceptable to them.  Political science is the scientific designation of the subject of our study, and this name has been accepted by the political scientists drawn from various countries. It covers the whole range of knowledge regarding the political governance of man. 1.6 NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Political Science is a study about the State. It makes an enquiry into the origin of the State and political authority. In this sense, it is a historical investigation about the origin of the State. Political Science also studies the structure and functioning of the State, governments, inter-State organisations, etc.In this sense, it is an analytical study of what the State is, Garner has rightly said that “Political Science begins with the State and ends with the State”. But Political Science does not confine its area to the past and present States only. It also attempts to formulate principles of good government or in other words, it suggests what the State ought to be. It is therefore, a study of past, present and future of the State. However, the study of Political Science is wider than the activities of the State.Upson writes “More limited than politics is the concept of the state.” The point that politics is broader than the state can be easily demonstrated. Wherever the State exists, there is also politics. But the reverse is not true-that wherever politics exists, so does the State. We can rightly speak of international politics but we know that there is not as yet a super national state. Modern View The recent view is that political science is not confined to an enquiry about the state; it also deals with the social and psychological factors which influence the activities of men in the state. It has to take into consideration the social science like sociology, psychology, economics, ethics and history. The UNESCO in the definition of the scope of political science included not only political theory and institutions, but also parties, public opinions and international relations. Thus it becomes obvious that political science has to study not only state but also the society as a whole in so far as it is related to the various institutions of the state.  Politics is a Science Politics is considered as science on the following grounds.  Politics can be studied in a systematic manner.  It is said that experimentation is possible in politics.  Political Science, like other Sciences, has absolute and universal laws.  It is possible to make predictions in politics, but in a limbed are. (5).These are certain principles and methods on which political thinkers unanimously agree.  Politics is a subject which has scientific nature. Writers like J.S. Hill, Maitland, Collin, Barker, etc, maintain that is only on art. Politics is not considered as science on the following grounds  Politics is not a Science  Politics has no absolute and universal laws like physical sciences or exact sciences.  It does not observe the theory of cause and effect which is the basis of all Sciences.  The subject of politics has not developed in a steady, regular and continuous manner.  Scientific methods of observation and experimentation cannot be applied to politics. Political Science is neither an exact science nor can it claim to predict the future with certainty. The results in physical sciences, like Physics and Chemistry, are definite and remain true under given conditions for all men and different claims. If there is any variation, it can be tested and explained. But it isnot possible to impose precise laboratory conditions on the political sphere in real life. Political Science deals with men and it is a living subject matter which can be explained in terms of living human activity. It cannot be expressed in fixed or static formulae. Man is dynamic and so must his institutions be. Political Science and Political Theory As a discipline political science is much more comprehensive and includes different forms of speculation in politics such as political through, political theory, political philosophy, political ideology, institutional or structural frame work comparative politics, public administration, international law and organization. With the rise of Political Science as a separate discipline, political theory was made one of its subfields. However, when used specifically with emphasis on science as distinct from theory, Political Science refers to the study of Political Science refers to the study of politics by the use of scientific methods in contrast to political philosophy which is free of follow institution. Political theory on the other hand is not only concerned about the behavioural study of the political phenomena from empirical point of vie but also prescribing the goals which states governments, societies, and citizens ought to pursue. Political theory also aims to generalize about the right conduct in the political life and about the legitimate use of power. Political theory is neitghted pure thought nor philosophy nor science. While it draws distinct from them. Contemporary political theory is trying to attempt a synthesis between political philosophy and political science. Although political science borrows heavily from the other social sciences, it is distinguished from them by its focus on power—defined as the ability of one political actor to get another actor to do what it wants—at the international, national, and local levels. Although political science overlaps considerably with political philosophy, the two fields are distinct. Political philosophy is concerned primarily with political ideas and values, such as rights, justice, freedom, and political obligation (whether people should or should not obey political authority); it is normative in its approach (i.e., it is concerned with what ought to be rather than with what is) and rationalistic in its method. In contrast, political science studies institutions and behaviour, favours the descriptive over the normative, and develops theories or draws conclusions based on empirical observations, which are expressed in quantitative terms where possible. Although political science, like all modern sciences, involves empirical investigation, it generally does not produce precise measurements and predictions. This has led some scholars to question whether the discipline can be accurately described as a science. However, if the term science applies to any body of systematically organized knowledge based on facts ascertained by empirical methods and described by as much measurement as the material allows, then political science is a science, like the other social disciplines. In the 1960s the American historian of science Thomas S. Kuhn argued that political science was “pre-paradigmatic,” not yet having developed basic research paradigms, such as the periodic table that defines chemistry. It is likely that political science never will develop a single, universal paradigm or theory, and attempts to do so have seldom lasted more than a generation, making political science a discipline of many trends. Self Assessment Questions Q1. Define Political Science. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Q2. “Political Science is not a Science”. Explain. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.7 SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE There is no general agreement on the nature and scope of Political Science, “the master science” as Aristotle described it, since there is no generally accepted definition of the discipline, and its organizing concept, the State.In fact, there are as many definitions as there are writers on the subject and all these definitions give to the entity- the State-different meanings and conflicting roles. Some writers restrict the scope of Political Science to the study of the State alone, for example, Bluntschli. All such writers exclude the study of government from the scope of political science deals only with government. Karl W. Deutsch says, “Because Politics, the making of decisions by public means, it is primarily concerned with government, that is, with the direction and self-direction of large communities of the people.” According to Robson, “The purpose of political science is to throw light on political ideas and political action so that the government of man may be improved.” Harold Laski takes a more realistic view and emphasizes that the scope of political Science embraces the study of both the State and Government, tough he maintains that the State in reality means the government. The scope of Political Science implies its jurisdiction or subject matter. Political Science is a very wide and comprehensive subject. There is no agreement among the Political Scientists as regard to the scope of Political Science. Despite this disagreement, we may make an attempt to define the scope of Political Science which includes the followings:. 1. Study of the State and Government Political Science primarily studies the problems of the State and Government. The state is defined as a group of people organised for law within definite territory. The State possesses four characteristics, viz. Population, territory, government and sovereignty. Government is an agent of the Stale. Political Science studies the activities of the State and explains the aims and objectives of the State and government.  Study of the State in historical perspective.  Study of origin and evolution ofState.  Study and analyses of functions of state at different periods of time.  Study of the modern form of state.  Study of different forms of Government, its specialized agencies and their functions.  Study of relationship between the people and the government. The State is a people organized for law within a definite territory. This entity, the sovereign political unity of life, orders and compels obedience by punishing those who violate it commands. But no State acts by itself. There must be present in every State some men or body of men competent to issue orders on its behalf and to see that they are actually obeyed. That is the Government. This is, however, the conventional field of functions of the government. The modern government has emerged as an active and positive agent in the direction of affairs of all communities. In the older democracies, and still more in the newer developing States as well as in the Communist countries, government is looked on as a major, or even the dominant, organizing power in society. A description of the State must, therefore, include the study of the structure and functions of government. Traditionally, the study of political values- of what, for example, ought to be the political structure and what political goals ought to be sought-has been the field of political philosophers. A main concern of the modern political philosophers is the study of great thinkers of the past- PLato, Aristotle ,Machivelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau among other. In the process he will analyse such value words as ‘Justice’, ‘rights’, ‘freedom’. This activity is currently supplemented by the study of values as political facts. The State, all the same, remains the central subject of the study of Political Science as the whole mechanisms ofgovernment emerges from and revolves around this entity. The need for government arises because there had been and there is need for the state. The need for the State is deeply embedded in the compelling necessities of human life and the advantages accruing from dwelling together on a defined territory and sharing the benefits of political life. When the State plays such a vital role in the life of man, it becomes all the more important to know it in all its aspects: what the State has been what it is, and what it ought to be. The State, as it is, refers to its existing structure and the analysis of the principles and practices of modern governments. But what the State is can only be understood by knowing what it had been. As we have seen, the study of the origin of the State, its evolution, and the development of the mechanism through which it functions. All this elates to the study of the State as it ought to be. Here Political Science enters the realm of political ethics and studies the moral problems of mankind in order to establish the principles of collective morality. We consider and evaluate the pruposes and ends of the State and the fundamental topics involved in such a study are: the ethical foundations of authority; the nature and limits of political obligation; the rights and freedoms of the individuals, groups and nations and an examination of the entire body- politic from the point of view of the ultimate end of human life. 2. Study of relations of the individuals with the State Relationship between an individual and a state is an interaction in which an individual owes allegiance to that state, and in turn is entitled to its protection. Citizenship implies the status of freedom with accompanying responsibilities. Citizens have certain rights, duties, and responsibilities that are denied or only partially extended to aliens and other noncitizens residing in a country. In general, full political rights, including the right to vote and to hold public office, are predicated upon citizenship. The usual responsibilities of citizenship are allegiance, taxation and military service. 3. Comparative Politics Comparative Politics focuses on politics within countries (often grouped into world regions) and analyses similarities and differences between various constitutions, political processes, structures, political functions and political environment. Comparative politics is a field and a method used in political science, characterized by an empirical approach based on the comparative method. In other words comparative politics is the study of the domestic politics, political institutions, and conflicts of countries. It often involves comparisons among countries emphasizing key patterns of similarity and difference 4. International Relations International relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries,the roles of sovereignstates, inter-governmental organizations (IGO), internationalnon- governmental organizations(INGO), non-governmentalorganizations (NGO), andmultinational corporations (MNC). International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative. It analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. The scope of Political Science includes a study of International relation is which has become significant since the first quarter of the 20 th century. It covers a wide range of subjects and includes diplomacy, international law, international organizations, lie the U.N. etc. because of scientific inventions and discoveries, the cooperation and contact among different nations of the world have become easier and the whole world turns to be a family. 5. Study of International Law Basically defined, International Law is simply the set of rules that countries follow in dealing with each other.International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between states and between nations.It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations.International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private citizens. National law may become international law when treatiesdelegate national jurisdiction to supranational tribunals such as the European Court of Human Rights or the International Criminal Court. Treaties such as the Geneva Conventions may require national law to conform.International Law, also called Public International Law or Law of Nations, the body of legal rules, norms, and standards that apply between sovereign states and other entities that are legally recognized as international actors. 6. Political Theory Political theory is the study of the concepts and principles that people use to describe, explain, and evaluate political events and institutions. Traditionally, the discipline of political theory has approached this study from two different perspectives: the history of political thought, and contemporary political philosophy. Political Theory includes classical political philosophy and contemporary theoretical perspectives (e.g., constructivism, critical theory, and postmodernism). 7. Public Administration Public administration is the implementation of government policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the public service. As a field of inquiry with a diverse scope, its fundamental goal is to advance management and policies so that government can function. Public administration is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conductstudies the role of the bureaucracy. It includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration; the management of public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and financial management; administrative law; public personnel management; professional ethics. Public Adminstrationis the field most oriented toward practical applications within political science and is often organized as a separate Department that prepares students for careers in the civil service. 8. Public Policy Public policy is the principled guide to action taken by the administrative executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner consistent with law and institutional customs. In general, the foundation is the pertinent national and substantial constitutional law and implementing legislation such as the US Federal code. Further substrates include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. It examines the passage and implementation of all types of government policies, particularly those related to civil rights, defense, health, education, economic growth, urban renewal, regional development, and environmental protection. 9. Study of Political Theory Political theory is a major branch of Political Science. On the basis of the political ideas or thoughts of political thinkers, political theory formulates definitions or concepts like democracy, liberty, equality, grounds of political institutions including government, explains their merits and demerits, their structure and working and arrives at different conclusions on comparative basis. A student of Political Science must start his lessons with political theory. Political theory explains the rudimentary concepts of Political Science. It also includes the study of political philosophy. Political theory is the study of the concepts and principles that people use to describe, explain, and evaluate political events and institutions. Traditionally, the discipline of political theory has approached this study from two different perspectives: the history of political thought, and contemporary political philosophy. Political Theory includes classical political philosophy and contemporary theoretical perspectives (e.g., constructivism, critical theory, and postmodernism). 10. Study of Political Dynamics The study of political dynamics has become significant in the 20th century. It means the current forces at work in government and politics. It covers a wide range and includes the study of political parties, public opinion, pressure groups, lobbies, etc. A scientific study of the working of these political dynamics helps to explain the political behaviour of individuals and different groups. The study in this field is often done in collaboration with other social sciences like sociology, anthropology and psychology. 11. Study of Political Institutions Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems; and otherwise provide representation for the populous. Examples of such political institutions include political parties, trade unions, and the (legal) courts. The term 'Political Institutions' may also refer to the recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, responsible government, and accountability. For a long period the study essentially centered around the legislatures, executives and judiciaries, the three institutions from making, carrying out and interpreting the law. As the study developed and knowledge advanced, the area extended to include political parties, bureaucracies, interest groups and other groups engaged in politics which have a continuous existence. At a later stage , it was further supplemented by how political communications work though press, radio, television, discussions or meetings and how demands emerge and are formulated through interest groups and political parties. The emphasis is on procedures and institutions through which authoritative decisions are made, and the outcome of such decision-making in the form of rule-making, rule-application and rule-adjudication. 12. Political Behaviour Political behaviour may be defined as any action regarding authority in general and government in particular. An obvious example of an act of political behaviour is the act of voting. In casting your vote you are, in a democracy, relating to government by voting for whom you feel should form the government. In this act of political behaviour, you also decide who you do not want to form the government.  The term political behavioris very broadly defined to include not only tangible forms of behavior (such as voting and participation), but also topics such as public opinion, mass communications, political psychology, and more. Politicalbehaviour focuses less on political institutions and more on the individuals and/or groups. Which is not restricted to declared behviouralists,concentrates on the behaviour of the individuals and groups within political institutions. 13. Political Socialization Political Socialization is the process by which political culture is transmitted in a given society. It occurs at both the individual and community level, and it extends beyond the acquisition of political culture to encompass the learning of more sophisticated political ideas and orientations. Political socialization is a life long process and a variety of individuals and institutions contribute to its shaping effect. For example, individuals are politically socialized by such groups as their family, peers, and social class. Furthermore, they are socialized by existing laws, media, religion, education, their own gender, and more. Basically, the process is never ending and the factors which shape it are all encompassing. Those groups and institutions which contribute to the process of political socialization are known as the agents of socialization. These sources affect the development of political values and attitudes differently, but they all contribute to the individual's understanding of and orientations toward politics. The primary agents of socialization are those that directly develop specific political orientations such as the family. Whereas, the secondary agents of socialization tend to be less personal and involved in the process of socialization in a more indirect manner such as the media. Political socialization is a lifelong process by which people form their ideas about politics and acquire political values. The family, educational system, peer groups, and the mass media all play a role. While family and school are important early in life, what our peers think and what we read in the newspaper and see on television have more influence on our political attitudes as adults. The above contents show the wide range of subjects that come under the fold of Political Science. Broadly speaking, political science contains the topics dealing with both empirical facts and philosophical values. Questions of facts are concerned with “what is” and those dealing with values are concerned with “what should be”. The contents of political science fall in either of these two broad categories. It is the human element or the livingness of the subject which makes Political Science a wide area of study. 1.8 SUMMARY Political Science, thus, enters into various fields and touches many horizons. The process of specialization on the various aspects of the discipline, orientation of methodology, importantly behavioural, and the interdisciplinary explanations has together brought about radical change in the scope of the discipline. Political decisions are not made in vacuum or due only to the personal idiosyncrasies of political factors. Economic factors, the social structure, the class, status and stratification systems influence both the content and mode of making political decisions. The scope of Political Science implies its jurisdiction or subject matter. Political Science is a very wide and comprehensive subject. A conference of political scientists held under the auspices of the Inter-national Political Science Association in Paris in the year 1948 demarcated the Scope of Political Science to four zones, namely Political theory, Political Institutions, Political dynamics and international relations. Political Scinece has been referred to as a Master Science- by Aristotle. Since then, this subject has a history of noble growth. Over these years, such concepts like sovereignty, revolution, liberty, equality, democracy etc. have been vividly dealt with political science. So to speak, Political Science primarily deals with in the state and government. The credit goes to Greeks for developing Political Science in this pure and systematic form. The study of Political dynamics has become significant in the 21st century. It means the current forces at work in government and politics. It covers a wide range and includes the study of political parties, public opinion, pressure groups. A scientific study of the working of the political dynamics helps to explain the political behavior of individuals and different groups. Political scientists like David Easton, Charles Lindblo and Thomas R. Dye hold the view that Political Science is a Policy Science. This concept of Public Policy is of recent origin. It is also a product of Post-Behaviouralism. It deals with the implementation, execution and formation of policy. In this process the formal political groups play a vital role. Thus the scope of Political Science has been widened greater importance in recent times. 1.9 GLOSSARY 1) Government – the group of people with the authority to govern a country of state. 2) NGO – Non government organization is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. 1.10 FURTHER READINGS Johari, J. C. (1985).Principles of Modern Political Science. Sterling Publishers, Pvt.Ltd.UP. Verma, S.P. (1975).Modern Political Theory.Vikas Publisher. Gauba, O.P (2016).An Introduction to Political Thought Mayer Paperback. 1.11 MODEL QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the Meaning and Nature of Political Science. 2) How the scope of Political Science has widened in the modern era. Discuss ---00---  Lesson-2 RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH HISTORY AND ECONOMICS Structure: 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Meaning and Definition of History 2.3 Relationship of Political Science with History 2.4 Meaning and Definition of Economics 2.5 Relationship of Political Science with Economics 2.6 Summary 2.7 Glossary 2.8 Further Readings 2.9 Model Questions 2.0 OBJECTIVES: After reading this lesson, you will be able to:  understand the meaning of History and Economics as independent disciplines.  discuss and access the relationship of Political Science with other Social Sciences viz.: History and Economics. 2.1 INTRODUCTION It is of utmost importance for the proper understanding of any subject of inquiry to establish its relationship with other subjects, to see clearly what elements of its reasoning it has to take from them, and what in its turn it may claim to give them. Political science is deeply related to all other social sciences, because knowledge that is gained about any phase of human behavior and attitudes, about the institutions that men build, or the ideas to which they respond, cannot fail to be of use in similar fields of inquiry. Each social science-Sociology, History, Economics, Ethics, Psychology, Geography and Political science- supplements and fortifies the rest. If we divide them into different sciences, they are distinctions within a unity as all aim at the study of man in society. All are inter-dependent and inter-related. Each contributes importantly to the advancement of the other 2.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF HISTORY History is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about these events. The term includescosmic, geologic, and organic history, but is often generically implied to mean human history. Scholars who write about history are called historians. There is no universally agreed definition of history. It has been defined differently by different historians  According to the earliest definition of Aristotle, “History is an account of the unchanging past.”  E. H. Carr gives a very beautiful definition of history. He says — history is an unending dialogue between the past and the present.  According to H. G. Wells, “Human history is in essence a history of ideas.” According to Freud, “Historical records are a law of right and wrong.”  Pt. Nehru says, “History is the story of man’s struggle through the ages against nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own benefit. “  Dr. Radhakrishnan says, “History is the memory of a nation or a race.”  The best definition which is scientific to a great extent was given byRapson. According to him, “History is a connected account of the course of events of progress of ideas.” History also refers to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them.Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing perspective on the problems of the present The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in University studies. 2.3 RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH HISTORY The state and its political intuitions grow instead of being made. They are the product of history and in order to understand them fully one must necessarily know the process of their evolution: how they have become what they are, and to what extent they have responded to their original purposes. All our political institutions have a historical basis as they depict the wisdom of generals. History furnishes sufficient material for comparison and induction, enabling us to build an ideal political structure of our aspirations. History, in its turn, has much to borrow from Political Science. Our knowledge of history is meaningless, if the political bearings of events and movements are not adequately evaluated. The history of the nineteenth-century Europe, for example, is an incomplete narration of facts unless full significance of the movements, like nationalism, imperialism, individualism, socialism, etc., are brought out. Similarly, the history of India’s independent is devoid of all logic, if we do not sufficiently explain the political result of the rise of the Indian National Congress: the Muslim demand for separate electorates; the benevolent despotism of the Government of India Act , 1909; Montagu’s August 1917 Declaration; the Reforms of 1919 and the experiment with Diarchy. The Cabinet Mission plan; the June 3, 1947, announcement; and the Independence Act, 1947. Political Science, says Bryce, “stands midway between the past and the present. It has drawn its material from the one, it has to apply them to the other.”. The relationship between Political Science and History is very close and intimate. John Seeley expressed this relationship in the following couplet- “History without Political Science has no fruit, Political Science without history has no root.”  Hegel- “Political history is a concept of the state with a moral and spiritual force beyond the material interests of its subjects: it followed that the state was the main agent of historical change.”  Willoughby.-History gives the third dimension of Political Science.  Lord action- The science of politics is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history like the grains of gold in the stands of a river.  Freeman goes to the extent of saying that “History is Past Politics is present history.” Both Political Science and History are contributory and complementary. I. Political Science is, undoubtedly, dependent on History for its material, but it supplies only a part of the marital. II. History is a chronological narration of events including wars, revolutions, military campaigns, economic upheavals, religious and social movements and the rest. A good part of this material is not required by Political Science. The main concern of a political scientist is to study the evolution of the political institutions and the facts which bear, directly or indirectly, on the State and government, and its socio-economic problems. III. History deals with concrete and matter of fact things. It presents to us not only facts things. It presents to us not only facts, but the causal connection between the facts. Political Science is speculative as well, since it deals with what the State ought to be. This speculative character of the subject necessitates the consideration of abstract types of political institutions and laws. History has hardly anything to do with this aspect of Political Science. Finally, the historian’s task is not to pass moral judgments, but the political scientist is bound to do so. It is here that political Science joins hands with Ethics and parts company with Sociology, History and Economics. IV. Political Science uses historical facts to discover general law and principles. V. Political Science stands midway between History and Politics.  VI. Political History is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements and leaders. VII. It is usually structured around the nation state. VIII. History furnishes sufficient material for comparison and induction, enabling us to build an ideal political structure of our aspirations. In the absence of historical data, the study of Political Science is sure to become entirely speculative. IX. The writings of historians, in brief, form a vast reservoir of material which a student of Political Science can analyse into meaningful patterns and guide him in understanding the present and outlining the future. Moreover, with its chronological treatment, history offers a sense of growth and development thereby providing a base or an insight into the social changes. X. History, in its turn, has much to borrow from Political Science. Our knowledge of history is meaningless, if the political bearings of events and movements are not adequate evaluated. The history of the nineteenth-century Europe, for example, is an incompletely narration of facts unless full significance of the movements, like nationalism, imperialism individualism, socialism, etc., are brought out. The conclusion is obvious. Political science and History are two distinct disciplines with separate problems, yet they have a common subject in the phenomena of the State and, as such, their spheres touch at many point and overlap at others. Leacock rightly remarks that some of History “is part of Political Science, the circle of their content overlapping an area enclosed by each.” Our Political Institutions are the product of history and in order to understand them fully one must necessarily know the process of their evolution: how they have become what they are, and to what extent they have responded to their original purposes. Both Political Science and History are contributory and complementary. So intimate is the affinity between the two that Seeley maintained: “Politics is vulgar when not liberalized by History, and History fades into mere literature when it loses sight of its relation to Politics. 2.4 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS Political science and economics are social sciences. Political science is the study of politics in theory and practice, while as well as dealing with subjects that often relate to one another in everyday life. Political Science and Economics are commonly seen as sister subjects in academic terms. Economics Theterm economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration”) rules of the house(hold for good management)". 'Political economy' was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested "economics" as a shorter term for economic science to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences. Economics isthe social science that studies the behavior ofindividuals, households,and organizations (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends. Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice. There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions. In other words, resource- controlling agents maximize value subject to the constraints imposed by the information the agents have, their cognitive limitations, and the finite amount of time they have to make and execute a decision. Economic science centers on the activities of the economic agents that comprise society. They are the focus of economic analysis. Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Consistent with this focus, primary textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies). Microeconomics is the study of how individual consumers and businesses make production, purchasing, investment, and saving choices. Macroeconomics looks at how an entire economy works and the way policies can affect the combined effects of microeconomic decisions. It can be argued that economics is a social science rather than a pure science, because it is based around resolving an irresolvable dilemma: how to meet people's unlimited wants with limited resources. economics is the study of how resources are produced, allocated, and distributed. A study of economics can describe all aspects of a country’s economy, such as how a country uses its resources, how much time laborers devote to work and leisure, the outcome of investing in industries or financial products, the effect of taxes on a population, and why businesses succeed or fail. People who study economics are called Economists. Economists seek to answer important questions about how people, industries, and countries can maximize their productivity, create wealth, and maintain financial stability. Because the study of economics encompasses many factors that interact in complex ways, economists have different theories as to how people and governments should behave within markets Adam Smith, known as the Father of Economics, established the first modern economic theory, called the Classical School, in 1776. Many authors, Math and business experts have defined what economics means to them. A selection of their definitions are as follows: Adam Smith (1776) defines the subject as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations,"  Lionel Robbins -"Economics is a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses."  W. Stanley Jevons - "The mechanics of utility and self interest."   Alfred Marshall - "A study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of well-being. Thus it is on one side a study of wealth; and on the other, and more important side, a part of the study of man."  Paul Samuelson - "The study of how a person or society meets its unlimited needs and wants through the effective allocation of resources." Self-Assessment Questions 1. Define Economics. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Define History. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.5 RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH ECONOMICS i. Political Science and Economics are both social sciences and hence they are closely connected. In the past, economics which was regarded as a branch of Political Science was called political economy. Today the two subjects have been separated and study different areas, but the areas are closely related to each other. In the promotion of welfare both the subjects go hand in hand. ii. Modern economists do not agree with the older point of view. They regard Economics as a separate discipline, which seeks to inquire how man gets his income and how he uses it. Alfred Marshall, the celebrated economist, considers it “on the one side the study of the wealth and on the other and more important side a part of the study of man.” Its scope is the study of human welfare and includes a discussion on Consumption, Production, Exchange, and Distribution- the four pillars on which the edifice of economics is built. iii. In spite of its treatment as a separate discipline, there is now no difference of opinion that Political Science and Economics are auxiliary to one another. Man in society is a common factor in the study of both these sciences and it is the welfare of man and society for which each strives. The study of both Political Science and Economics is directed to the same common end. The welfare of man can only be obtained under conditions of an orderly society, because both are inseparable. It is the function of the State to secure these conditions so that every individual gets an opportunity for pursuing his activities, economic activities, of course, preceding the rest. iv. No State can remain content merely to provide conditions of peace and order. The purpose of the State is to create that atmosphere which may be conducive to the good life of man and to give all an equal opportunity for growth and development. The State performs certain functions in  order to achieve its purpose. It is one of the important functions of the State to see what its citizens consume. Every State is vitally concerned with the health of its people, as the people are the health of the State. v. It also becomes necessary for the State to see how commodities are produced and the nature and conditions of their production. For example, the Government of India is now making ceaseless efforts for growing and producing more, as the existing scale of production does not keep pace with the total demand of the country with its explosive growth of population. vi. When demand exceeds supply, conditions of scarcity are created and prices rise. Rising prices cause distress for the masses and throw out fog rear the orderly conditions of society it is the primary duty of the government to remove conditions of distress and alleviate the sufferings of the people. vii. Similarly, banks, too, play an important role in controlling the price level by regulating credit. The paper currency of a modern State is issued by its Central or Reserve Bank. It is within the jurisdiction of the State to regulate the functions of banks by necessary laws for even to nationalize them, if necessary. viii. The most baffling problems which confronts every country is that of distribution. In Economics, under the heading distribution, we study how the landlord, the worker, the capitalist, and the organizer are paid for the work each does in the field of production. ix. The theories of individualism and Socialism, with its different varieties, illustrate better than any other the interaction of political science and economics. x. Political and economic conditions act and react on another. As a matter of fact, the solution of many of the economic problems must come through political agencies sand the major problems of every State are economic in character. Britain’s political policy in India, and her reluctance to grant independence to Indians was more an economic expediency than a political advantage. xi. The burning questions of present-day politics, viz., government control of industries, the relations of the State to industries, its attitude towards labour and capital and a multitude of other similar problem, are all economic questions interviewed in the political issues. xii. A good government, in brief, judiciously plans for plenty and it is judged in terms of specific economic achievements, that is, by the harsh realities of administrative performance; by the production of food and arrangements for its distribution at a reasonable price, by the growing production and equitable distribution of essential commodities, by the growth of employment opportunities, by the timely and efficient completion of development projects and by the judgment of their priorities. xiii. The most prominent link between political science and economics is in the practicalities of government. For example, there may be a connection  between whether a politician considers himself left-wing or right-wing, within the context of the country concerned, and whether the politician puts more weight into fiscal economics, which aims to stimulate the economy through government spending, or monetarist economics, which aims to stimulate the economy by influencing the price and availability of credit. xiv. There are many topics in which stances can have both a political and economic element, such as whether a government should attempt to reduce inequalities across society, work towards equalities of opportunity, or avoid any interference wherever possible. Taken as a whole, political and economic views can't always be simplified into two camps; for example, some politicians consider themselves economically conservative but socially liberal. xv. Political Economy is most commonly used to refer to interdisciplinary studies that draw on economics, law and Political Science in order to understand how political institutions, the political environment and economy influence each other. xvi. Within Political Science, the term refers to modern liberal, realist, Marxian and constructivist theories concerning the relationship between economic and political power among and within states. xvii. Historians have employed the term to explore the various ways in the past that individuals or groups with common economic interests have utilized the political process to effect change over time that is beneficial to their interests. xviii. Economists and political scientists often associate the term with approaches using rational choice assumptions, particularly game theory, to explain phenomena beyond the standard limit of economics. In this context, the term “positive political economy” is common. xix. Other especially anthropologist, sociologists and geographers use the term “political economy” to refer to Neo-Marxian appraohces to development and underdevelopment set forth by Andre Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein. 2.6 SUMMARY Social sciences study how people interact with and relate to one another. Political science, with its emphasis on political systems and the distribution of power, falls into this larger academic category. A multidisciplinary field, political science draws from some other social sciences, including Sociology, History, Economics, Psychology and Anthropology. Political Science has a definite and proper relationship with many social sciences, influence one another. It is thought that a number of sciences indirectly imply a relationship and eventually a progress in political science seems to be continuous due to the involvement and role of political science in many social sciences. Thus, the relevancy of political science to other social sciences, viz and specifically History, Sociology and Economics is described through several methodologies whereby it seems to be highly acceptable and outstanding. This acknowledges that political science has influences on other sciences, as well describe how essential this science as a reference to observe or access the phenomenon of life and human activity very recently. Political Science cannot be an isolated field as all branches of the social sciences purport to explain the larger questions concerning people and the state. Hence, there are symbiotic relationships between political science and other sub-disciplines of social sciences as they have common ground in their quest to understand how political systems work and how politics and governance functions in various diverse situations. 2.7 GLOSSARY 1) Realist- a person who accepts a situation as it is and is prepared to deal with it accordingly. 2) Judiciously – Showing good judgment 3) Electorate – All people in a country who entitled to vote in an election. 2.8 FURTHER READINGS Johari, J. C. (1985). Principles of Modern Political Science. Sterling Publishers, Pvt.Ltd. UP. Jain, M.P. (2012). Political Theory.Bookage Publication, Delhi. Asisvatham, E &Misra K. K (2014-15). Political Theory. S. Chand & Co Ltd, New Delhi. Ray, A, Bhatacharya M (1962). Political Theory. Eastern Publisher, New Delhi. 2.9 MODELQUESTIONS: 1. Discuss the relationship between Political Science and History. 2. The inter-disciplinary study of History and Economics is necessary for understanding various issues and aspects of Political Science. Discuss ---00---  Lesson-3 RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH SOCIOLOGY Structure: 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Meaning and Definition of Sociology 3.3 Relationship of Political Science with Sociology 3.4 Summary 3.5 Glossary 3.6 Further Readings 3.7 Model Questions 3.0 OBJECTIVES: After reading this lesson, you will be able to:  understand the meaning of Sociology  discuss and access the relationship of Political Science with Sociology. 3.1 INTRODUCTION It is of utmost importance for the proper understanding of any subject of inquiry to establish its relationship with other subjects, to see clearly what elements of its reasoning it has to take from themand what in its turn it may claim to give them. Political science is deeply related to all other social sciences, because knowledge that is gained about any phase of human behavior and attitudes, about the institutions that men build, or the ideas to which they respond, cannot fail to be of use in similar fields of inquiry. Each social science-Sociology, History, Economics, Ethics, Psychology, Geography and Political science- supplements and fortifies the rest. If we divide them into different sciences, they are distinctions within a unity as all aim at the study of man in society. All are inter-dependent and inter-related. Each contributes importantly to the advancement of the other 3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology The term Sociology is derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’, meaning companion or associate, and the Greek word ‘logos’ , meaning study or science. Thus, the etymological meaning of sociology is the science of society. Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions. A goal for many sociologists is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure. Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology's subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology's purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures. Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and explains important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world. At the personal level, sociology investigates the social causes and consequences of such things as romantic love, racial and gender identity, family conflict, deviant behavior, aging, and religious faith. At the societal level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms, urban community, and social movements. At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development. Some Important Definitions of Sociology  AugusteComete, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation".  Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".  Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social groups".  Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to- men".  Max Weber defines sociology as "the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects".  Alex Inkeles says, "Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their inter-relations".  Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack say, "Sociology is the scientific study of social aspects of human life". Of the various definitions of sociology the one given by Morris Ginsberg seems to be more satisfactory and comprehensive. He defines sociology in the following way: "In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and inter- relations, their conditions and consequences". Sociologists emphasize the careful gathering and analysis of evidence about social life to develop and enrich our understanding of key social processes. The research methods sociologists use are varied. Sociologists observe the everyday life of groups, conduct large-scale surveys, interpret historical documents, analyze census data, study video-taped interactions, interview participants of groups, and conduct laboratory experiments. The research methods and theories of sociology yield powerful insights into the social processes shaping human lives and social problems and prospects in the contemporary world. By better understanding those social processes, we also come to understand more clearly the forces shaping the personal experiences and outcomes of our own lives. The sociological imagination is extremely valuable academic preparation for living effective and rewarding personal and professional lives in a changing and complex society. Sociology offers a distinctive and enlightening way of seeing and understanding the social world in which we live and which shapes our lives. Sociology looks beyond normal, taken-for-granted views of reality, to provide deeper, more illuminating and challenging understandings of social life. Through its particular analytical perspective, social theories, and research methods, sociology is a discipline that expands our awareness and analysis of the human social relationships, cultures, and institutions that profoundly shape both our lives and human history. Self-Assessment Questions 1. Give any two definitions of Sociology. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3.3 Relationship of Political Science with Sociology Sociology and Political Science are closely related. They both lack clearly defined meaning. The origin of the term Political Scienceis rather old, as it is associated with the Greek word Polis whereas the term Sociologywas coined by AugusteComtein 1839 to designate the science of society. Political science and sociology are very intimately connected and rare mutually contributory. i. Sociology is the parent science of all the social sciences. It deals with social development in general and analysis and describes social life in all its phases and complexities through all ages and climes. Sociology may, thus, be defined as the science of the origin and development, structure and functions, of social groups , their forms, laws, customs, institutions, modes of life, thought and action and their contribution to human culture and civilization. These sociological aspects form the basis for the study (genesis, growth and development) of political institutions and structures. ii. Sociology seeks to discover the general principles underlying all social phenomena and social relationships to establish the laws and rules of change and growth in a particular society. iii. Both Political Science and Sociology are mutually contributory. Political Science gives to Sociology facts about the organization and functions of the state, and obtains from it knowledge of the origin of political authority and laws which controlled society. iv. A Political Scientist must be a sociologist and a sociologist ought to be a political scientist. For example, the institution of marriage by itself is an element in the social life of man and is the concern of Sociology. But if a  code of marriage, like the Hindu Marriage Act, is enacted to regulate it in a particular way, it at once falls within the domain of political Sciences as it comes within the scope of organized control and obedience. v. The analysis of political parties, pressure groups, Political associations, unions and political roles cannot be divorced from their relationship to social classes. The sociology of the electorate-behaviour of man in the