Play and Development Theories PDF

PLAY AND DEVELOPMENT THEORIES What answers can teachers give to questions about play in the classroom? Perhaps the most frequently quoted clichés are, “Play is the child’s...

PLAY AND DEVELOPMENT THEORIES What answers can teachers give to questions about play in the classroom? Perhaps the most frequently quoted clichés are, “Play is the child’s way of learning” or “Play is the child’s work.” How does play contribute to development and learning? Is play related to work in some systematic manner, or is play simply evidence of the flights of fancy and freedom we associate with childhood? To answer these and other questions related to the role of play in curriculum for young children, we as teachers first need to formulate our ideas about the nature of play and how it develops. Although other species engage in physical or sensorimotor play, the range of play from motor play to pretend play to games with rules is a uniquely human capacity. The development of play through these stages forms the foundation for the development of intellect, creativity and imagination, a sense of self, the resolution of feelings, and the capacity to interact with others in positive and morally sound ways. Play and Development Theories Page 1 of 35 In this chapter, we view play through each of these various developmental lenses, discussing how play contributes to each in turn and to the integration of physical, social-emotional, and cognitive competencies for the whole child. Play and Development Theories Page 2 of 35  Learning Objectives explore the major theories that adress the development of play in childhood discover the levels and stages suggested by these theories In developing a theory of practice that is based in the daily lives of children and their teachers, we begin by discussing the more “classic” theorists in developmental psychology whose general theories are well articulated. Play and Development Theories Page 3 of 35  Constructivism (19th -20th century) ·Involves interaction between nature and nurture the developing child explores and adapts to the environment by coping with everyday challenges In the West, this has given rise to the debate between “nature” and “nurture.” The “nature” argument proposes that the form of adult capacities is contained in the seed of the infant and only needs to be nourished. The “nurture” argument holds that the adult is formed through experience and that the form of the adult is a reflection of this experience Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. at the CORE of the developing child, in the context of the social and physical environment, explores and adapts to the environment by coping with everyday challenge As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas) Play and Development Theories Page 4 of 35  Constructivism Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) George Hebert Mead (1863-1931) Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Theorists: recognizes role of play in young children’s development in relation to SOCIAL and CULTURAL context Play and Development Theories Page 5 of 35  Piaget’s Developmental Theory and Play Primarily focused on intellectual development, but also address social, moral, linguistic, and emotional development. Play and Development Theories Page 6 of 35  Piaget viewed the development of knowledge as a gradual process of restructuring earlier ways of knowing into a more adequate and more generalized way of knowing child centered; focusing on child’s spontaenous autonomous activities Piaget viewed the development of knowledge as a gradual process of restructuring earlier ways of knowing into a more adequate and more generalized way of knowing. His theory places the child at the center of this construction with a high premium on the child’s spontaneous, autonomous activities. In the early childhood years this is always linked to play, both alone and with peers. Play and Development Theories Page 7 of 35  Piaget Knowledge is not simply acquired by accumulating information from the environment but is based on what the individual child brings to each situation schemes/schema/mental patterns means for organizing experiences so that we can make sense of the events in our lives Knowledge is not simply acquired by accumulating information from the environment or copying the behavior of others but is based on what the individual child brings to each situation. The schemes or mental patterns that children have already constructed are modified and built on as children try to make sense of new experiences in light of what they already know "you use your prior knowledge to make sense of what is happening atm Play and Development Theories Page 8 of 35  Adaptation means of organization Assimilation Accomodation new experiences are incorporated Allows the structure of our into and interpreted by existing thinking to change in adapting structures of thought to new experiences. Allows us to consolidate, Existing patterns are modified generalize, and apply our current to incorporate new information. structures of thinking to new situations and materials. to make sense of new experiences a process happens Intelligent Adaptation: means of organization ex. In adaptation, humans modify their interaction with the environment to fit their personal needs. TWO ASPECTS OF ADAPTATION (the interactive nature of the two aspects; source of development and learning) o Assimilation: new experiences are incorporated into and interpreted by existing structures of thought. Elements of experiences are transformed to fit into the structure or “template” of that individual’s thinking. Allows us to make sense of our experiences in light of what we already know.  Allows us to consolidate, generalize, and apply our current structures of thinking to new situations and materials. o Accommodation: (complement to assimilation). Allows the structure of our thinking to change in adapting to new experiences. Play and Development Theories Page 9 of 35 It is the process through which new schemes or mental patterns for potential behavior are created. Existing patterns are modified to incorporate new information. Allows us to meet challenges presented by the environment such as resolving the cognitive surprise generated by playing with ooblek when playdough was expected.  Challenges us to change and adapt our mental structures in the face of new information. Through the interaction of assimilation and accommodation, children balance their internal states and meet their personal needs for intelligent adaptation. Play and Development Theories Page 10 of 35  Assimilation and accommodation in the early childhood days allow children to construct and expand their thinking about the way the world works from idiosyncratic concepts to stable and predictable internal mental models and the external world. Assimilation and accommodation in the early childhood days allow children to construct and expand their thinking about the way the world works from idiosyncratic concepts to stable and predictable internal mental models and the external world. Through play and assimilation, young children bend their view of reality to their own immediate needs and wants. In the early childhood years, assimilative and accommodative processes are constantly fluctuating. First, the mental patterns fit the new situation. Then new elements are introduced that contradict. Mental structures then change to accommodate these new elements. This process of construction and expansion marks the development of children’s early thinking from idiosyncratic concepts about the way the world works to more stable and predictable relationships between internal mental models and the external world Play and Development Theories Page 11 of 35  Three Types of Knowledge Physical Logical- Social allow children to mae Mathematical knowledge imparted generalizations about knowledge about the by other people and the physical relationships among includes names for properties of objects objects, people; things, social relationship between conventions actions or objects o Physical: derived from activities that allow children to make generalizations about the physical properties of objects. For example, through physical manipulation in play, children may discover that rocks sink and cork float, blocks stacked too high may fall, and sand and water may be used to mold forms. o Logical-mathematical: knowledge about the relationships among objects, people, and ideas is constructed as children reflect on the relationships between actions or objects, for instance by comparing the sizes of two balls, o the relative lengths of blocks. In logical-mathematical knowledge, the concepts used by the child come not from the objects themselves but from the relationship invented by the child.  Note: Physical and logical-mathematical knowledge are constructed through the child’s own exp eriences. o Social: knowledge imparted by other people and includes names for things as well as social conventions such as proper behavior at snack or group time. Falls closer to the accommodative end of the continuum, relying on processes of imitation and memorization for its acquisition. However, social knowledge also depends on the mental structures created through logical-mathematical knowledge for its application. (example: “good words” and “bad words” derived from social experiences, but the L-M capacity enables children to decide when a word Play and Development Theories Page 12 of 35 might meet with the disapproval of adults) Play and Development Theories Page 13 of 35  Piaget: the Development of Stages of Play Practice or Functional Play Major characteristic of sensorimotor intelligence “happy display of known actions” remains a major form of activity throughout childhood and adulthood Symbolic Play Begins at about 18 months Major characteristic of the stage preoperational intelligence Involves the use of mental representation to pretend that one object stands for another in play OR take on a make-believe role in play Constructive Dramatic o Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood showed how children develop the ability to represent their world through a series of stages in which assimilation and accommodation are increasingly better coordinated with each other. o As new stage develops, it incorporated the possibilities for play of all the previous stages.  Practice or Functional Play First stage Major characteristic of sensorimotor intelligence. “happy display of known actions” where children repeat their schemes for actions with objects or their own bodies. Infant: grasping, pulling, kicking, and propelling of arms that infants engage in. Children: splashing water, sifting sand, honking horn, riding a bike. Practice or functional play remains a major form of activity throughout childhood and adulthood. Engage in the pleasure of mastering the movement Can be displayed throughout lifetime  Symbolic Play Play and Development Theories Page 14 of 35  Begins at about 18 months Major characteristic of the stage preoperational intelligence. Involves the use of mental representation to pretend that one object stands for another in play OR take on a make-believe role in play. Forms a foundation of future abstract thinking and the ability to organize both work and play experiences as human beings develop o Three major forms:  Constructive Provides natural link between practice or functional play and more sophisticated forms of symbolic play. Child uses concrete objects to create a representation of an object: blocks or playdough manipulated to represent a house are typical examples. Intent is to: approach one’s mental representation of the symbolized object as closely as possibl e  Dramatic Often overlaps with constructive play. Involves the creation of imaginary roles and situations and frequently accompanies the construction of pretend objects. Representation is more abstract Instead of simple object symbols, children use gestures and language to create imaginary roles and situations with complex themes, characters, and scripts. Sometimes this play is sociodramatic in nature, involving the negotiation of roles and pretend themes with others. Play may be solitary, with characters, themes, and situations enacted by a single-player o Mastery sets the stage for playing games with rules (which appears about the age of 6 or 7 and continues as the predominant form of overt play throughout middle childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Overt play is an important concept because older children and adults continue to engage in constructive and dramatic play long after early childhood, but more in a correct manner. Dramatic and construction play takes the form of private fantasy and hypothetical thinking and accompany the daily internal lives of adults in many of the same ways that overt dramatic play enriches the lives of young children. Play and Development Theories Page 15 of 35 Play and Development Theories Page 16 of 35  Piaget: the Development of Stages of Play Games with Rules Involves adherence to an external set of social rules that governs play. Type of play marks the transition from preoperational to concrete operational through in Piaget’s theory Rules may be negotiated and agreed on by the players before the game begins or negotiated on the spot as children spontaneously invent a game  Games with Rules Involves adherence to an external set of social rules that governs play. Type of play marks the transition from preoperational to concrete operational through in Piaget’s theory. Rules may be negotiated and agreed on by the players before the game begins or negotiated on the spot as children spontaneously invent a game. Ability to negotiate and adhere to mutually agreed-on rules has its roots in the ad hoc negotiation of rules common to socio-dramatic play at earlier stages of development Play and Development Theories Page 17 of 35  Piaget also theorized about the emotional nature of symbolic play, discussing the cathartic or “liquidating combinations” in play that allows children to discharge emotions associated with disturbing experiences. compensatory function of symbolic play that provides opportunities to “correct” reality that is confusing or unpleasant NOTE: Even though Piaget discussed the emotional nature of play and believed that social experience is essential for the development. Play and Development Theories Page 18 of 35  Vygotsky: Development and Play how development and learning takes place through social interactions within historical and cultural contexts Vygotsky was a constructivist who was particularly interested in the social dynamics that support development central to his theory is the belief that conflict and problem solving in social situations are essential features of child development In this chapter we discuss four important social–cognitive processes that are central to his theory: 1. the zone of proximal development 2. the movement from interpersonal to intrapersonal knowledge 3. the acquisition of mental tools 4. the transition from implicit rules to explicit rules. Play and Development Theories Page 19 of 35  Zone of Proximal Development context in which the child’s understanding is furthered as a result of social interactions zone of proximal development (ZPD) to refer to the context in which the child’s understanding is furthered as a result of social interactions He wrote that children perform beyond their usual level of functioning when engaged in the social and cognitive collaborations that create this zone “Play is the source of development and creates the zone of proximal development" observing children’s symbolic play, teachers discover how new concepts, skills, and competencies emerge in the play of each child in relationship to others Play and Development Theories Page 20 of 35  Interpersonal to Intrapersonal Process in Learning development occurs at the social level first then at the individual level places importance of social activities between child and adults/peers to promote development how development and learning takes place through social interactions within historical and cultural contexts  Vygotsky asserts that every function in development occurs first at the social or interpersonal and, later at the individual level or intrapersonal level  In this view, Social Activities between children and adults or among peers promote development and are of primary importance.  Young Children frequently learn new concepts or skills with others, such as Amy learning to use a funnel to try to fill a water balloon with her playmates at the water table. She then tries her new concepts and skills in the bathtub at home.  In schools, children learn from adults and from other children in both formal and informal activities. In this way, they develop an understanding of activities and adult roles that are time and culturally specific. Play and Development Theories Page 21 of 35  Acquiring Mental Tools Mental tools make cognitive and physical activities possible and easier (i.e., use of language) Children learn the use of mental tools from others Acquiring Mental Tools  “tools of the mind” that are essential to human evolution and cultural development.  Mental tools make cognitive and physical activities possible and easier. (use of language, is a mental tool central to communication, especially abstract ideas and concepts)  Children learn the use of mental tools from others Play and Development Theories Page 22 of 35  Understanding Rules Children develop their understanding of rules Transition from Implicit to Explicit Rules All play has rules and with new levels of development Rules in dramatic play govern the organization of roles and behavior in play and events. e.g. firefigthers When conflict among players occurs when their expectations differ children begin to articulate their ideas about rules that govern social behavior from their experiences and their family and cultural backgrounds through play children can confront the ideas of peers and adults around them agreed-on rules are essential to the functioning of society. Understanding Rules  According to Vygotsky, children develop their understanding of rules.  All play has rules and with new levels of development, these rules become more explicit. In this way, dramatic (pretend) play, where rules are implicit, forms the foundation of games, where rules are explicit.  Rules in dramatic play govern the organization of roles and behavior in play and events. (example: firefighters have to hook up their hoses first”)  Yet following these rules is largely taken for granted during children’s dramatic play until conflict among players occurs when their expectations differ. Then children assert their versions of the rules governing characters’ behaviors and hypothetical events.  As children begin to articulate their ideas about rules that govern social behavior from their experiences and their family and cultural backgrounds, they also confront the ideas of their peers and the adults around them.  Basic play-centered curriculum are mutual understanding of social rules, for example, that throwing blocks or sand might hurt other children. In this way, children begin to understand why agreed-on rules are essential to the functioning of society. Play and Development Theories Page 23 of 35  Vygotsky’s Level of Symbolic Play In symbolic play, children use objects to represent ideas, situations, and other objects Very young children merged the meaning of objects with the objects themselves PIVOTS pivots anchor children’s mental representations of the meaning of words e.g. book as taco because of its “taco-ness” For Vygotsky, the use of objects in play as support for the development of meaning-in-the-mind marks a key stage in the development of thought. Vygotsky also contributed to our understanding of how play relates to levels in the development of symbolic thinking.  How play relates to levels in the development of symbolic thinking.  Very young children merged the meaning of objects with the objects themselves and thus could not think abstractly.  IN symbolic play, children use objects to represent ideas, situations, and other objects  Objects that represent other objects are called “pivots”  Children use pivots to anchor their mental representations of the meaning of words. (Example: book to represent taco in kitchen play. “taco-ness” anchored by the idea of an object than open and closes= resemblance)  When children’s representational competence grows, pivots become less necessary, and meaning may be carried completely in the mind. For instance, through the use of an imaginary object.  For Vygotsky, the use of objects in play as support for the development of meaning-in- the-mind marks a key stage in the development of thought. Play and Development Theories Page 24 of 35  Mead:Play and the developing sense of self Mead (1934) described the relationship of play to the development of a stable sense of self. For Mead, play is the major vehicle for young children to learn to differentiate their own perspectives from those of others in their social worlds. As children take on pretend roles of others and coordinate those roles with the roles taken by their playmates, they come to view their own behavior from the perspectives of other people. What is "I" according to Mead's theory of Self? Mead's theory of self refers to this as the "I" and the "me" phase. The "I" is the answer to the "me," which is the interpersonal Self. Put another way, "I" is a person's reaction to other people's emotions, The "I" stands for a person's feelings and instincts. Play and Development Theories Page 25 of 35 How one assumes one's organization sees oneself is what one refers to as the "me," which is the total of the "generalized other". whereas "me" is the ordered set of those perceptions that one acquires. he "me" is the one who is being understood "I" and "me" are constantly interacting, and this interaction is what we refer to as the "stream of tho ught." The human cognition concept is based on these processes, which go beyond the idea of selfhood in a restricted sense. Mead sees the internal debate between "I" and "me" as the thinking process. According to Mead, WHAT Are the stages of developing the self? Play and Development Theories Page 26 of 35  Play Stage young preschool child operates in the play stage of the development of the self transformations from self to others beginning to differentiate the “I” from the “me” aspect of self from the sense of the self as a social object According to Mead (1934), the preschool and primary-grade years provide the impetus and context for children to see themselves as unique human beings within the community of others. In Mead’s theory, the young preschool child operates in the play stage of the development of the self, accomplishing simple role transformations from self to others. This is what Smilansky (1968) described as the beginning stages of role play. The child simply becomes a tiger, or an astronaut, or a veterinarian, and then returns to being the self, with limited expansion of the components or complementary roles involved in the transformations child is just beginning to differentiate the “I” or spontaneous aspect of the self from the “me,” or the sense of the self as a social object Children at this stage form the rudiments of a sense of self that include their own perspectives as well as representations of how others view them. Play and Development Theories Page 27 of 35  Game Stage “I” aspect of self is coordinated with complex representations of the viewpoints of others about the “I.” child learns to coordinate the representation of the self with the multiple perspectives that others might think As role playing becomes more complex, children enter into what Mead called the game stage of the development of the self. In this stage the “I” aspect of self is coordinated with complex representations of the viewpoints of others about the “I.” At this point, the child in the game stage of development of the self is learning to coordinate her representation of herself with the multiple perspectives that others might take. She can think about the various aspects of her “pretend selves” in relation to the other players. She shifts fluidly from the “I” to the “me” and considers herself a social object as well as an actor in her play THE GENERALIZED OTHER In this stage the child not only coordinates the “I” of the self with multiple “me’s” but adopts a metacognitive stance regarding the framework within which action takes place. children in this stage discuss the components of their roles The generalized other stage is one in which games with rules become of interest as children coordinate the perspectives of players with their understanding of Play and Development Theories Page 28 of 35 the framework that governs the rule structure of the game. Mead (1934) emphasized the importance of the social context in which children learn a game. This behavior reflects the understandings children have about the social rules of our culture, as expressed in both their role behavior within the play and in their negotiations about roles outside the play. This development takes time. Older preschoolers and kindergartners may follow game rules presented and played out in a rigid manner. Teachers find that children delight in creating their own games Play and Development Theories Page 29 of 35  The Generalized Other Stage “I” of the self with multiple “me’s” but adopts a metacognitive stance regarding the framework within which action takes place children in this stage discuss the components of their roles stage where children become interested in games with rules children coordinate the perspectives of players with their understanding of the framework that governs the rule structure of the game behavior reflects the understandings children have about the social rules of our culture THE GENERALIZED OTHER In this stage the child not only coordinates the “I” of the self with multiple “me’s” but adopts a metacognitive stance regarding the framework within which action takes place. children in this stage discuss the components of their roles The generalized other stage is one in which games with rules become of interest as children coordinate the perspectives of players with their understanding of the framework that governs the rule structure of the game. Mead (1934) emphasized the importance of the social context in which children learn a game. This behavior reflects the understandings children have about the social rules of our culture, as expressed in both their role behavior within the play and in their negotiations about roles outside the play. This development takes time. Older preschoolers and kindergartners may follow game rules presented and played out in a rigid manner. Teachers find that children delight in creating their own games Play and Development Theories Page 30 of 35  Erikson: Play and Mastery in the Inner World Erikson importance of play for young children’s emotional development Psychosocial theory: the individual’s inner psychological state is inseparable from the social context. extends Freud’s psychoanalytic theory by considering both the inner, psychological dimensions and the outer, social and cultural dimensions of children’s developing identity (Erikson, 1950/1985). During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development. these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Play and Development Theories Page 31 of 35 Erikson described eight major stages of psychosocial development that build on previous stages (Erikson, 1950/1985). The first four stages describe development from infancy through early childhood. Rather than being stages that individuals “pass through,” Erikson stressed that although the healthy personality exhibits the strength of a particular stage (e.g., trust), healthy individuals continue to rework the balance of the strength of the stage and its antithesis (e.g., mistrust) throughout their lives. For example, it is adaptable for healthy individuals of all ages to exhibit mistrust in situations where it is dangerous to be too trusting, such as being challenged to jump from a high wall. Play and Development Theories Page 32 of 35  Infancy: Trust and Mistrust The emotionally healthy infant’s basic sense of trust is central to the toddler’s development of autonomy Toddler: Autonomy, Shame, and Doubt Children’s developing sense of autonomy is shaped by their schools, families, and society “I can do it” (developing sense of power) Role as adult: examine what children are allowed to and expected to do; set boundaries on children’s behavior sense of autonomy rather that shame and doubt regarding their efforts Erikson described eight major stages of psychosocial development that build on previous stages (Erikson, 1950/1985). The first four stages describe development from infancy through early childhood. Rather than being stages that individuals “pass through,” Erikson stressed that although the healthy personality exhibits the strength of a particular stage (e.g., trust), healthy individuals continue to rework the balance of the strength of the stage and its antithesis (e.g., mistrust) throughout their lives. For example, it is adaptable for healthy individuals of all ages to exhibit mistrust in situations where it is dangerous to be too trusting, such as being challenged to jump from a high wall. Play and Development Theories Page 33 of 35  Early Childhood and the Play Stage: initiative and Guilt where sense of autonomy develops into intiatives when intiatives overreaches or becomes inappropriate, guilt emerges where children create their own “microreality” Children initiate play to work through past failures and present contradictions Adult Role: create a sense of environment where children’s intiative are supported to develop a sense of competence and purpose Microreality: He described how, at this stage, children express their initiative in play by developing complex plots with conflicting turns and twists and create a wide range of characters: the power of their imagination Play and Development Theories Page 34 of 35  Industry and Inferiority: Play and Work in Middle Childhood children have the competencies to participate in work that their culture values sense of industry or inferiority is based on cultural expectations Adult Role: provide chores at home, formal instruction, apprenticeship at local artisan Microreality: He described how, at this stage, children express their initiative in play by developing complex plots with conflicting turns and twists and create a wide range of characters: the power of their imagination Play and Development Theories Page 35 of 35