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Biopsychology Eleventh Edition Chapter 2 Evolution, Genetics, and Experience: Thinking About the Biology...
Biopsychology Eleventh Edition Chapter 2 Evolution, Genetics, and Experience: Thinking About the Biology of Behavior Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 4) 2.1 Describe the origins of the physiological–psychological and nature–nurture ways of thinking. 2.2 Explain why thinking about the biology of behavior in terms of traditional physiological–psychological and nature–nurture dichotomies is flawed. 2.3 Describe the origins of evolutionary theory. 2.4 Explain the evolutionary significance of social dominance and courtship displays. 2.5 Summarize the pathway of evolution from single-cell organisms to humans. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (2 of 4) 2.6 Describe nine commonly misunderstood points about evolution. 2.7 Describe how research on the evolution of the human brain has changed over time. 2.8 Explain how Mendel’s work with pea plants has informed us about the mechanisms of inheritance. 2.9 Understand the structure and function of chromosomes. 2.10 Describe the process of gene expression. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (3 of 4) 2.11 Discuss several ways in which modern advances have changed our understanding of genetic processes. 2.12 Define epigenetics, and explain how it has transformed our understanding of genetics. 2.13 Discuss what insights into the genetics of behavior were gained from early research on selective breeding. 2.14 Explain how classic research on phenylketonuria (PKU) has informed our understanding of the genetics of behavior. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (4 of 4) 2.15 Explain why it is important to distinguish between the development of individuals and the development of individual differences. 2.16 Explain heritability estimates and how they are commonly misinterpreted. 2.17 Describe two ways that twin studies can be used to study the interaction of genes and experience (i.e., nature and nurture). Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Self Awareness in Toddlers Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Origins of Dichotomous Thinking Is it physiological or psychological? –Science and religion –Cartesian dualism Is it inherited or learned? –Nature and nurture –Behaviorism and ethology Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problems with Thinking about the Biology of Behavior in Terms of Traditional Dichotomies (1 of 3) Problem 1: Asomatognosia –Deficiency in awareness of one’s own body parts Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.1 Asomatognosia Damage FIGURE 2.1 Asomatognosia often involves damage to the right frontal and parietal lobes. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problems with Thinking about the Biology of Behavior in Terms of Traditional Dichotomies (2 of 3) Problem 2: Chimps show psychological (i.e., “human”) abilities –Mirror self-recognition test –Chimps examine and touch the red marks viewable in mirror –Demonstrates self-awareness Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Problems with Thinking about the Biology of Behavior in Terms of Traditional Dichotomies (3 of 3) Many factors beyond genetics (nature) or learning (nurture) impact behavior “Nurture” now encompasses learning and environment Genetic and experiential factors interact –Interactionism Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.3 Biology of Behavior FIGURE 2.3 A schematic illustration of the way in which most biopsychologists think about the biology of behavior. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Darwin suggests species evolve Presented three kinds of evidence –Fossil records –Structural similarities –Selective breeding Argued for natural selection Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.4 Species Evolve FIGURE 2.4 Four kinds of evidence supporting the theory that species evolve. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evolution and Behavior Behaviors contribute to “fitness” Obvious examples –Finding food –Avoiding predation Not so obvious examples –Social dominance –Courtship displays Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.5 Dominance FIGURE 2.5 Dominant bull elephant seals copulate more frequently than those lower in the dominance hierarchy. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Course of Human Evolution (1 of 3) Evolution of vertebrates –Chordates have dorsal nerve cords –Vertebrates have spinal bones Evolution of amphibians –Bony fishes leave the water –Advantages ▪Fresh water ▪New terrestrial food sources Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.6 Missing Evolutionary Link FIGURE 2.6 A recently discovered fossil of a missing evolutionary link is shown on the right, and a reconstruction of the creature is shown on the left. It had scales, teeth, and gills like a fish and primitive wrist and finger bones similar to those of land animals. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Course of Human Evolution (2 of 3) Evolution of reptiles –Lay shell-covered eggs –Covered by dry scales –Can live far from water Evolution of mammals –Develop mammary glands to nurture young –Raise young in mother’s body –Humans emerge from the order primates Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Course of Human Evolution (3 of 3) Emergence of humankind –Humans are hominins, genus Homo –First Homo species emerged from a species of Australopithecus over 2 million years ago –Homo sapiens emerged 275,000 years ago Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.7 Different Primates FIGURE 2.7 Species from five different groups of primates. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.8 Primate Comparisons FIGURE 2.8 A comparison of the feet and hands of a human and a chimpanzee. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.9 Human Species Taxonomy FIGURE 2.9 A taxonomy of the human species. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.10 Australopithecus Skull FIGURE 2.10 The remarkably complete skull of a 3-year-old Australopithecus girl; the fossil is 3.3 million years old. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.12 Hominin Evolution FIGURE 2.12 Hominin evolution. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking about Human Evolution (1 of 3) Evolution does not proceed in a single line Humans have existed for a brief period Rapid evolutionary changes occur Fewer than 1 percent of all known species are still in existence Evolution does not necessarily result in perfect design Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking about Human Evolution (2 of 3) Not all existing behaviors or structures are adaptive –Spandrels: incidental nonadaptive byproducts (such as the human belly button) Not all existing adaptive characteristics evolved to perform their current functions –Exaptations: evolved to do one thing, but now do something else (such as bird wings) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Thinking about Human Evolution (3 of 3) Similarities among species do not necessarily have common origins –Homologous structures –Analogous structures –Convergent evolution Humans are not the product of a single ancestral Homo population Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evolution of the Human Brain (1 of 2) Brain size not correlated with intelligence Convolutions lead to larger cerebrum Brain size is generally correlated with body size Relative sizes of different brain regions important Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.13 Brains and Evolution FIGURE 2.13 The brains of animals of different evolutionary ages—cerebrums are shown in pink; brain stems are shown in orange. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evolution of the Human Brain (2 of 2) The human brain has increased in size during evolution Most of the increase in size has occurred in the cerebrum Convolutions allow an increase in the volume of the cerebral cortex Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (1 of 6) Mendel studied dichotomous traits in true- breeding lines of pea plants. Dichotomous traits occur in one form or another True-breeding lines always produce offspring with the same trait Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (2 of 6) Mendel crossed a line bred true for brown seeds with one bred true for white First-generation offspring all brown seeds When the first generation were bred together (¾ brown and ¼ white seeds) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (3 of 6) Dominant traits Recessive traits Genotype Phenotype Homozygous Heterozygous Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (4 of 6) True-breeding lines — White (ww) — Brown (BB) Brown was the dominant trait, appearing in all of the first-generation offspring (Bw) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (5 of 6) Phenotype Genotype: traits present in the genes Dominant traits present in the genotype (Bw), will be observed in the phenotype (brown seeds) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.14 Mendel’s Theory in Action FIGURE 2.15 How Mendel’s theory accounts for the results of his experiment on the inheritance of seed color in pea plants. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mendelian Genetics (6 of 6) Each inherited factor is a gene Two genes that control the same trait are called alleles Homozygous: 2 identical alleles (BB, ww) Heterozygous: 2 different alleles (Bw) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chromosomes (1 of 5) Genes are located on chromosomes Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with an allele on each chromosome Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Meiosis Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chromosomes (2 of 5) Meiosis: Cell division that produces gametes egg cells sperm cells Zygote contains 23 pairs of chromosomes Mitosis: All other cell division Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.15 Fertilization FIGURE 2.15 During fertilization, sperm cells attach themselves to the surface of an egg cell; at least one must enter the egg cell to fertilize it. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mitosis Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chromosomes (3 of 5) Meiosis leads to genetic diversity Crossing over increases diversity Genetic recombination Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chromosomes (4 of 5) Chromosomes are DNA molecules — Nucleotides on strand 1 always pair with specific nucleotides on strand 2 — DNA replication crucial for mitosis Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved DNA Replication Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.17 DNA Replication FIGURE 2.17 DNA replication. As the two strands of the original DNA molecule unwind, the nucleotide bases on each strand attract free- floating complementary bases. After the unwinding is complete, two DNA molecules, each identical to the first, will have been created. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chromosomes (5 of 5) Sexchromosomes, X and Y, look different and carry different genes — Female = XX — Male = XY Sex-linked traits are influenced by genes on the sex chromosomes Dominant traits on the X chromosome will be seen more commonly in females Recessive traits seen more in males Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Genetic Code and Gene Expression (1 of 2) Structural genes Proteins Promoters Gene expression Activators Repressors Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.18 Gene Expression FIGURE 2.18 Gene expression. Transcription of a section of DNA into a complementary strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) is followed by the translation of the messenger RNA strand into a protein. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Genetic Code and Gene Expression (2 of 2) Gene expression has two phases — First phase involves transcription of DNA base-sequence code to RNA base-sequence code — Second phase involves translation of RNA base sequence code into protein Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Epigenetics Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Epigenetic Mechanisms Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Genome Project Mapping of 3 billion nucleotide bases Human proteome is a map of entire set of proteins Gene research focused on complex interactions between genes, their variants, and experience Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Genetics: Growth of Epigenetics (1 of 2) Four factors lead to rise of epigenetics –Genes synthesize 1% of human DNA (junk DNA) –Protein encoding minor function of RNA –Mechanisms of gene-experience interactions unknown –New research techniques available Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Modern Genetics: Growth of Epigenetics (2 of 2) Five important advances in epigenetics – Nongene DNA as junk no longer accepted – Multiple types of RNA found – Advances in gene expression ▪DNA methylation ▪Histone remodeling – RNA editing – Epigenetic mechanisms are enduring ▪Transgenerational epigenetics Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.19 Epigenetic Mechanisms FIGURE 2.19 Two frequently studied epigenetic mechanisms. Histone remodeling involves modifications to a histone protein (around which DNA is coiled). DNA methylation involves the attachment of a methyl group to DNA. Both DNA methylation and histone remodeling can either decrease or increase gene expression. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Selective Breeding of “Maze-Bright” and “Maze-Dull” Rats Two classic examples of the interaction of genetic factors and experience –Selective breeding of “maze-bright” and “maze-dull” rats –Phenylketonuria: a single-gene metabolic disorder (discussed later) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.20 Selective Breeding FIGURE 2.20 Selective breeding of maze-bright and maze-dull strains of rats by Tryon (1934). (Data from Cooper, R.M., & Zubek, J.P. (1958). Effects of enriched and restricted early environments on the learning ability of bright and dull rats. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 12, 159-164.) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 2.21 Enriched Environments FIGURE 2.21 Maze-dull rats did not make significantly more errors than maze- bright rats when both groups were reared in an enriched environment. (Adapted from Cooper & Zubek, 1958.) Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Phenylketonuria: A Single-Gene Metabolic Disorder Form of intellectual impairment Accumulation of phenylalanine Absence of phenylalanine hydroxylase Phenylalaline-free diet reduces effects Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of Individuals versus Development of Differences among Individuals Assess relative contributions of environment and genes Twin studies — Monozygotic — Dizygotic Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Heritability Estimates: Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart –Correlations of complex human traits and behaviors Heritability estimates –Range between 40–80 percent Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Twins and Personality Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Look into the Future: Two Kinds of Twin Studies Compare monozygotic twins Wong: Methylation in buccal cells Turkheimer: Function of SES Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved This work is protected by United States Copyright copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
