Physio Lecture Finals PDF

Peripheral Nervous System NERVOUS SYSTEM 1.​ Somatic Nervous System - controls voluntary movement. 2.​ Autonomic Nervous System - control involuntary movement....

Peripheral Nervous System NERVOUS SYSTEM 1.​ Somatic Nervous System - controls voluntary movement. 2.​ Autonomic Nervous System - control involuntary movement. NERVOUS SYSTEM a.​ Sympathetic: fight or flight. b.​ Parasympathetic: rest and digest ​ Consist of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. ​ Includes the central nervous system and the peripheral Central Nervous System nervous system. ​ Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Functions ​ Responsible for processing and interpreting sensory ​ Physical movement information and sending out responses. ​ Body functions like breathing ​ Responsible for five senses Alzheimer’s Disease Main Functions of the Nervous System ​ Progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects the nervous system, specifically central nervous system. It 1.​ Sensory Input (primary) - collect information about the causes gradual damage to the brain, leading to cognitive internal and external conditions from sensory receptors. Also decline, memory loss, and functional impairment. allows us to perform arithmetic operations. 2.​ Integration - process and interpret sensory information to Affected brain regions: Hippocampus, Cerebral Cortex, Basal make decisions. Forebrain 3.​ Motor output - sends signals to muscles and glands to elicit a response, such as movement or secretion. Parkinson’s Disease Parts of the Brain ​ Progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects the nervous system, particularly the regions responsible for 1.​ Cerebrum - higher brain functions such as thought, action, movement and coordination. It occurs due to the and sensory processing. degeneration of specific neurons and disruption of key 2.​ Cerebellum - regulated balance, posture, and coordination. neurotransmitter systems. 3.​ Brainstem - connects the brain to the spinal cord. Acts as a communication highway, transmitting signals between the Affected areas of the Nervous System: Basal ganglia, Central brain and the rest of the body. It is also protected by Nervous System (CNS), and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) vertebrae.  Epilepsy 2.​ Pulmonary circulatory system - moves blood between the heart and lungs. ​ Chronic neurological disorder of the nervous system that causes recurrent, unprovoked seizures. These seizures are Functions of the Cardiovascular System a result of abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which disrupts normal communication between neurons. ​ Circulates oxygen ​ Provides cells with nutrients Role of the Nervous System in Epilepsy ​ Removes waste products of metabolism ​ Protects the body from diseases ​ Stops bleeding after injury by clotting ​ Central Nervous System (CNS): ​ Transports hormones to target cells and organs ○​ Brain: Epilepsy primarily affects the brain, leading to ​ Helps regulate body temperature overactive neuronal firing. ​ Specific brain regions, such as the temporal Structures of the Cardiovascular System lobe, are often implicated in focal epilepsy. ​ Generalized epilepsy involves widespread 1.​ Heart areas of the brain. -​ Muscular organ that pumps blood through the body. ○​ Structural abnormalities, injuries, or imbalances in -​ Protected by pericardium which is a protective neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA and glutamate) can membrane surrounding it. trigger seizures. Divided into four chambers: ​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): ​ Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the ○​ While the PNS is not directly involved in epilepsy, it body. may relay physical symptoms during a seizure (e.g., ​ Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to the involuntary muscle contractions). lungs via pulmonary artery. ​ Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ​ Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM via aorta. Three Layers of the Heart: ​ The network of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. ​ Endocardium (Inner layer) ​ Myocardium (Middle layer) Two Blood Circulatory Systems ​ Epicardium (Outer layer) 1.​ Systemic circulatory system - transports blood to the organs, tissues, and cells throughout the body. 2.​ Blood -​ Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products Components of Blood ​ Erythrocytes (Red blood cells) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ​ Leukocytes (White blood cells) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ​ Thrombocytes (Platelets) 3.​ Arteries ​ The network of organs and structures in the body that work -​ Oxygenated blood vessels that carry blood away together to allow us to breathe and exchange gases like from the heart. oxygen and carbon dioxide. 4.​ Capillaries -​ Tiny blood vessels for exchange of oxygen, Functions: nutrients, and waste. ​ Breathing & Gas exchange: It brings oxygen and removes 5.​ Veins carbon dioxide from the body. -​ Deoxygenated blood vessels that carry blood back ​ Air pathways: Air travels through structures like the nose, to the heart. windpipe, and lungs. ​ Alveoli: Tiny sacs in the lungs where oxygen enters the Blood Pressure blood, and carbon dioxide leaves. ​ Moist Surfaces: Helps gases move easily during breathing. ​ Force exerted by blood on vessel walls. ​ Protection: Mucus and tiny hairs filter out dust and germs. ​ Flexibility: The lungs and chest expand and contract for Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) smooth breathing. ​ Blood Flow: Lots of blood vessels carry oxygen to the body ​ The pressure in the blood vessels is too high (140/90mmHg and remove carbon dioxide. or higher). ​ Ph Balance: It helps keep blood acidity levels stable. ​ Extra Functions: It also helps us talk and smell. Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure) Classified in Two Ways ​ Blood pressure is much lower than normal or lower than 90/60. 1.​ Structural a.​ Upper Respiratory Tract i.​ Nasal Cavity - Entry point for air. It is not just a passageway for air but a mini-filter that warms and moistens the air. ii.​ Pharynx and Larynx - Guides air to the larynx, which plays a dual role: it is our  voice box and a guard that keeps food out of the airways. Conditions That Affect Breathing b.​ Lower Respiratory Tract i.​ Bronchi and Bronchioles - Think of these ​ Apnea - This is when breathing temporarily stops, often as the branches of a tree that spreads air during sleep. throughout the lungs. Types of Apnea ii.​ Lungs - The stars of the show! The lungs ​ Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) house tiny air sacs called alveoli where gas ○​ Happens when throat muscles relax too exchange happens. much and block the airway. 2.​ Functional ○​ Breathing stops repeated;y during sleep due a.​ Conducting Zone - This zone is dedicated to the to the blockage. movement of air. It extends from the nose to the ​ Central Sleep Apnea bronchioles, ensuring air is efficiently transported to ○​ Caused by the brain not sending the right the lungs. signals to breathing muscles. b.​ Respiratory Zone - Located within the lungs, this is ○​ Breathing becomes irregular or stops, even where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the air though the airway is not blocked. enters the blood, and carbon dioxide from the blood ​ Complex Sleep Apnea Syndrome​ is expelled into the air. ○​ A mix of both obstructive and central sleep apnea, involving airway blockages and Process of Gas Exchange signal problems from the brain.. ​ Ventilation - This is the physical act of breathing--air moving ​ Dyspnea - This refers to difficulty breathing, like the in and out of the lungs. It is driven by the movement of the shortness of breath we feel after intense exercise —or for thorax and certain muscles, such as the diaphragm and some, it’s a symptom of asthma or heart conditions. intercostal muscles. ​ Hyperventilation - Breathe too fast, reducing carbon dioxide ​ External Respiration - This is where oxygen enters the levels in the blood. blood in the lungs, while carbon dioxide exits the blood and ​ Hypoventilation - Shallow or slow breathing results in is expelled in the tiny air sacs of the lungs, called alveoli. carbon dioxide buildup. It’s dangerous and can lead to organ ​ Gas Transport - Oxygen and carbon dioxide transported via failure if untreated. bloodstream. Oxygen moves from the lungs for removal. ​ Internal Respiration - This is the exchange of gases at the tissue level. Oxygen leaves the blood to enter the tissues for cellular processes, while carbon dioxide, a byproduct of these processes, exits the tissues and re-enters the blood for disposal.  Stomach ​ J-shaped muscular sac DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ​ Holds food while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes. ​ Produce enzymes and other specialized cells to digest food. Digestive System Small Intestine The Digestive System in the human body is a group of organs that work together to break down food and nutrients from food and liquids ​ Connects stomach to large intestine. consumed. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract or ​ Inside the abdominal cavity. digestive tract and other accessory organs. ​ Parts of the small intestine: duodenum, jejunum, ileum. Major Organs Accessory Organs Large Intestine (Colon) ​ Mouth ​ Liver ​ Long tube that starts at the small intestine as food nears the ​ Esophagus ​ Pancreas end of its journey through the digestive system. ​ Stomach ​ Gallbladder ​ Made up of four parts: cecum, ascending colon, ​ Small Intestine descending colon, rectum, and anus. ​ Anus/Rectum Liver ​ Large organ in the abdominal cavity. ​ It has four lobes: right, left, caudate, and quadrate. ​ It receives blood from the hepatic artery and portal vein. Structures and Functions ​ It produces, stores, concentrates bile, excrete bilirubin, and Mouth recycle proteins and iron. ​ First entry point of food. Gallbladder Esophagus ​ Small, pear-shaped organ under the liver that stores and ​ Hollow, muscular tube that carries food and liquid from the releases bile. throat to the stomach ​ Located at the center of the chest. Pancreas ​ Glandular organ in the abdomen. ​ It has two main functions: Exocrine and Endocrine.  SPECIAL SENSES Pathway of Digestion Vision 1.​ Mouth - beginning of the digestive system. 2.​ Esophagus - passageway that transports food to the The ability of the eyes to concentrate and detect visible light images stomach. on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye, which produce electrical 3.​ Stomach - Act as a mixer and grinder for food. Produces nerve impulses for different colors, hues and brightness, is known as acid and enzymes to break down food. sight or vision. 4.​ Small Intestine - workhorse of digestion where most Hearing nutrients are absorbed. 5.​ Large Intestine - Process waste and prepare it for The sense of sound perception is called hearing or audition. elimination as stool. 6.​ Anus - where stool exists from the body. Taste Digestive System Mechanism The ability to recognize the flavor of many items, including foods, minreal, toxins, etc., Ingestion - process of taking food into the mouth and chewing it. Propulsion - food particles move from the mouth into the pharynx, Smell then into the esophagus through deglutition (swallowing) and peristalsis (contractions and muscle relaxations). The other "chemical" sense is smell, or olfaction. Odor molecules Mechanical Digestion - ingested food breaks into smaller particles have a range of characteristics that cause them to excite particular than can be acted upon by various enzymes. receptors more or less strongly. The sum of these excitatory signals Segmentation - contractions of the digestive tract that mix food with from various receptors is what humans perceive to be the scent of enzymes. the molecule. Chemical digestion - process of breaking down food using enzymes. Touch Absorption - simple molecules pass through the lining of the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. Activation of neural receptors, usually in the skin, including hair Defecation - removing indigestible waste from the body through the follicles, but also in the tongue, throat, and mucosa, results in touch anus. or somatosensory perception, also known as tactician or mechanoreception.  External and Accessory Structures of the Eye ​ NEURAL LAYER- contains millions of rods and cones (photoreceptor cells) used to respond to light. ​ EYELIDS - is a covering that protects our eyes from harmful objects and lights. Other Parts ​ EYELASHES - is a hair that grows at the edge of lower eyelids. ​ SCLERA - white part of the eye ​ TARSAL GLANDS - is a sebaceous gland that produces oil ​ CORNEA - serves as window PUPIL- is where light passes to lubricate eyes. through CHOROID -is a vascular membrane that prevents ​ CONJUNCTIVA - is a membrane that covers the outer light from scattering. surface of the eyeball. It lines with eyelids. ​ OPTIC DISC - is where photoreceptor cells are not ​ LACRIMAL APPARATUS - drains the lacrimal secretions distributed. It is also known as the blind sport. into the nasal cavity by lacrimal gland and ducts. ​ FOVEA CENTRALIS - is a lateral blind spot that contains ​ LACRIMAL GLANDS - is at the lateral end of the two eyes. only cones It releases tears onto the anterior surface through several ducts. Lens of the Eye ​ LACRIMAL CANALICULI - is where our tears flush across the eyeball and then into the lacrimal sac. Nasolacrimal duct ​ VITREOUS - prevents eyeball to collapse inward empties the nasal cavity. ​ AQUEOUS - helps to maintain the pressure inside the eye ​ LYSOZYME- is a lacrimal secretion that contains antibodies ​ CANAL OF SCHLEMM - is where aqueous humor is to destroy bacteria. reconsume, located at the junction of cornea and sclera ​ EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES - are muscles that are capable of moving our eyes. The muscles are lateral rectus, medial Two Eye Reflexes rectus, superior rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique and superior oblique ​ PHOTOPUPILARY - constricts the eye when there is excessive bright Layers of the Eyeball ​ ACCOMMODATION PUPILLARY - constricts the eye when we view closely the objects that we see. It provides for acute ​ FIBROUS LAYER - is the outermost layer that consists of vision sclera and cornea Diseases and Conditions ​ VASCULAR LAYER - is the middle layer of eye that has three regions: Choroid, Ciliary Body and Iris ​ REFRACTIVE ERRORS - these issues arise from improper ​ SENSORY LAYER - is an innermost sensory layer that is light focus on your retinas, which impairs your vision. composed of a two-layered retina. Focusing too soon (nearsightedness) or too late ​ PIGMENTED LAYER - absorbs light and prevents light to (farsightedness) are two examples of the various types of scatter inside the eye.  Refractive errors. They may also involve visual ​ LENGTH OF FIBERS - basilar membrane tune depending abnormalities, like astigmatism on the length of fibers. It can detect higher notes up to ​ CORNEAL DISORDERS - The cornea itself is impacted by 20,000 Hertz by shorter hair cell these disorders. They can occur for a variety of reasons, from illnesses that arise later in life to congenital conditions, 3 Parts of the Ear which are conditions that you have from birth. ​ RETINAL DISORDERS - These disorders may result from 1.​ External Ear issues that directly impact the retina. Similar to how lattice a.​ Auricle - sometimes called pinna, is a shell-shaped degeneration can result in retinal detachment, they can also front that encircles the auditory canal opening. be secondary symptoms of another disease. b.​ External Acoustic Meatus - a miniscule, narrowed ​ OPTIC-NERVE RELATED CONDITIONS - These have an hollow that follows through the temporal bone of the impact on the nerve connecting the brain and eyes. Optic skull. atrophy and optic neuritis are two examples. c.​ Tympanic Membrane - a skin-lined wall that releases ​ AGE RELATED EYE DISORDERS - As you age, these a yellow cerumen, or mostly called earwax. disorders are more likely to occur, particularly beyond the 2.​ Middle Ear - a small and air filled misaligned activity within age of 65. They range from small issues like cataracts to the temporal lobe. more serious ones like age related presbyopia, or loss of a.​ Oval Windows - the inferior close vision. Certain age-related eye conditions, such as b.​ Round Windows - membrane covered glaucoma or macular degeneration, are severe enough to c.​ Pharynxgotympanic tube - a slanting tube that is result in irreversible vision loss connected to the middle ear cavity d.​ Auditory ossicles - it can transfer the fluid in the inner ear with the help of vibratory motion Mechanisms of Hearing e.​ Tympanic Cavity - compassess 3 bones: hammer/malleus, anvil/incus, and stirrup/stapes ​ VIBRATIONS - sound wave must pass through air to excite the hair cells in organ of corti 3.​ Internal Ear ​ SOUND TRANSMISSION - cochlea makes the sound a.​ 3 Subdivision of bony labyrinth (SPIRALING, transmission easier to follow. PEA-SIZED COACLEA, VESTIBULE, ​ LOW FREQUENCY SOUND WAVES - low sound waves SEMICIRCULAR CANALS) don’t travel around cochlear duct without exciting hair cells b.​ Perilymphs - are plasma---like fluids ​ HIGH FREQUENCY SOUND WAVES - high sound waves c.​ Membranous labyrinth- contains thinker fluid that usually cause pressure that penetrates through the cochlear dispersed in the perilymph duct and basilar membrane to reach scala tympani. This results in vibrating maximally.  4 Main Parts of the Nose 6 Main Parts of the Tongue 1.​ OLFACTORY RECEPTORS - Thousands of receptors that Taste Buds: 10,000 taste buds/receptors scattered across the oral occupy the postage stamp-sized area in the roof-size of cavity but are mostly located on the tongue. each nasal cavity. Papillae: A small peg projection that covers the dorsal of the tongue. 2.​ OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELL - They are neurons with Circumvallate and Fungiform papillae: Located on the side of olfactory hairs that extend long cilia from the nasal circumvallate papillae and above the numerous fungiform papillae. epithelium, and continually immersed by music that was Olfactory Nerves: Those that manage and lead the impulses to the secreted by underlying glands. olfactory cortex of the brain. 3.​ OLFACTORY FILAMENTS - Located on cilia, stimulated by Glossopharyngeal and Vagus Nerves: Both cranial nerves and the chemical dissolve in the mucus and transmit impulses serve taste-bud containing areas. alongside olfactory filaments. A group of bundle axons of Basal Cells: They replace taste bud cells every 7 to 10 days, olfactory neurons that collects for olfactory nerves. located in the deeper regions of taste buds. 4.​ OLFACTORY NERVES - Those that manage and lead the impulses to the olfactory cortex of the brain. Other Parts of the Nose Nose Hairs: Dust and debris that would otherwise wind up in your nasal passages are captured by the hairs within your nose. Nostrils (nares): Nasal cavities are accessible through the holes in your nostrils. Paransal Sinuses: Nasal cavities are connected to these air-filled spaces. The mucus that keeps the nose wet is produced by them. Septum: Nasal chambers are divided by this bone and cartilage. Between the nostrils is the lowest portion of septum. Turbinates (conchae): The air you breathe in gets warmed and moistened by these folds. They help with nasal drainage as well. Each of your nasal cavities has three pairs of turbinates.