Phonetics and Phonology PDF

***Phonetics and Phonology*** - **Phonetics** is the study of the physical sounds of human speech. It examines how sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics), transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and perceived (auditory phonetics). - **Phonology** is the study of how sounds function...

***Phonetics and Phonology*** - **Phonetics** is the study of the physical sounds of human speech. It examines how sounds are produced (articulatory phonetics), transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and perceived (auditory phonetics). - **Phonology** is the study of how sounds function and behave within a particular language or languages. It focuses more on the cognitive aspects of sounds and their patterns. **[Sound Types]** - C**onsonants**: Sounds made by blocking or narrowing airflow in your mouth or throat (like /p/, /t/, or /s/). - **Vowels**: Sounds made with your mouth open and airflow moving freely (like /a/, /e/, or /i/). - **Glides**: Sounds like /w/ and /j/ that are in between vowels and consonants. - **Clicks, Trills, and Others**: Special sounds found in some languages, like clicks made by the tongue or rolling /r/ sounds. **[Segmental Features]** These focus on individual sounds in speech, called phonemes, which include consonants and vowels. **1. Place of Articulation** This refers to where in your mouth or throat the sound is made: - **Bilabial**: Both lips come together (e.g., /b/, /p/). - **Alveolar**: The tongue touches or gets close to the ridge behind your upper teeth (e.g., /t/, /d/). - Other places include **dental** (tongue and teeth), **velar** (back of the tongue and soft palate), and more. **2. Manner of Articulation** This is about how the airflow is shaped when making the sound: - **Stop**: Airflow is completely blocked and then released (e.g., /t/, /k/). - **Fricative**: Air is forced through a narrow space, causing friction (e.g., /s/, /f/). - There are other manners like **nasal** (air flows through the nose, e.g., /m/) and **approximant** (a softer constriction, e.g., /l/). **3. Voicing** This describes whether your vocal cords vibrate or not when making a sound: - **Voiced sounds**: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/). - **Voiceless sounds**: Vocal cords don't vibrate (e.g., /p/, /t/). **[Suprasegmental Features]** These cover aspects of speech that go beyond individual sounds, affecting whole syllables or sentences. **1. Stress** Stress is when a syllable in a word is said more forcefully. - Example: In *PREsent* (a noun), the first syllable is stressed. In *preSENT* (a verb), the second syllable is stressed. **2. Intonation** This is the rise and fall of pitch when speaking. - Example: Your pitch might rise at the end of a question in English, like \"Are you sure?\" **3. Tone** Some languages, like Mandarin, use pitch to change the meaning of words. - Example: The word *ma* can mean \"mother,\" \"horse,\" or something else depending on the tone. **4. Rhythm** This is the pattern of strong and weak beats in speech, based on stressed and unstressed syllables. - Example: English tends to have a stress-timed rhythm, meaning some syllables are stressed more than others, creating a regular pattern. **5. Duration** Duration refers to how long a sound lasts. - Example: Some languages, like Japanese, use short and long vowels to differentiate words. ***Morphology*** Morphology is the study of how words are formed and structured. It focuses on the smallest meaningful units of language, called **morphemes**. - A **morpheme** is the smallest part of a word that has meaning. For example: - In *unhappiness*: - *un-* (a prefix, meaning \"not\") - *happy* (a root word, meaning \"joyful\") - *-ness* (a suffix, showing it\'s a noun). **[Branches of Morphology]** Morphology can be divided into two main branches: **a. Inflectional Morphology** - Studies how words change form to show grammatical information like tense, number, or gender. - Example: - *walk* → *walked* (past tense). - *cat* → *cats* (plural). **b. Derivational Morphology** - Examines how new words are created by adding prefixes or suffixes to a root. - Example: - *happy* → *unhappy* (adds a prefix to change meaning). - *teach* → *teacher* (adds a suffix to change the word's role in a sentence). **[Word Formation]** Word formation is about how new words are created in a language. Some common processes include: **a. Compounding** - Combining two or more words to form a new one. - Example: *notebook*, *sunflower*. **b. Affixation** - Adding prefixes (before the root) or suffixes (after the root). - Example: *disagree*, *kindness*. **c. Conversion** - Changing a word\'s class without changing its form. - Example: *text* (noun) → *to text* (verb). **d. Blending** - Merging parts of two words to create a new one. - Example: *smoke* + *fog* → *smog*. **e. Clipping** - Shortening a longer word. - Example: *advertisement* → *ad*. **f. Acronyms and Abbreviations** - Using initials or shortened forms to create new words. - Example: *NASA*, *LOL*. **g. Reduplication** - Repeating part or all of a word. - Example: *bye-bye*, *zig-zag*. **[Word Classes]** Word classes (or parts of speech) categorize words based on their role in a sentence. The main word classes are: **a. Nouns** - Words that name things, people, places, or ideas. - Example: *cat*, *freedom*. **b. Verbs** - Words that describe actions, states, or events. - Example: *run*, *is*. **c. Adjectives** - Words that describe nouns. - Example: *happy*, *blue*. **d. Adverbs** - Words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. - Example: *quickly*, *very*. **e. Pronouns** - Words that replace nouns. - Example: *he*, *they*. **f. Prepositions** - Words that show relationships between nouns and other words. - Example: *on*, *under*. **g. Conjunctions** - Words that join phrases or sentences. - Example: *and*, *but*. **h. Interjections** - Words that express emotion or sudden reactions. - Example: *wow!*, *ouch!* ***Syntax*** Syntax is the study of how words are arranged into phrases, clauses, and sentences to create meaning. It looks at the structure and rules of sentence formation in a language. - Example: The sentence *\"She reads books\"* follows a specific order: Subject (She) → Verb (reads) → Object (books). **[Clause Patterns (Clause Types)]** A **clause** is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate (verb). Clauses can have different patterns based on their elements: 1. **Subject + Verb (SV)**: The simplest structure. - Example: *She sleeps.* 2. **Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)**: Adds a direct object. - Example: *He eats apples.* 3. **Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)**: A complement gives more information about the subject. - Example: *They are happy.* 4. **Subject + Verb + Object + Object (SVOO)**: Contains two objects (direct and indirect). - Example: *She gave him a gift.* 5. **Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC)**: The complement refers to the object. - Example: *They painted the house blue.* **[Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis]** IC analysis breaks a sentence into its smallest meaningful parts (constituents) to show its structure. - Example: In the sentence *\"The cat sleeps,\"* - Split into: \[The cat\] (noun phrase) + \[sleeps\] (verb phrase). - Each part is further broken down: *The cat* → \[The\] + \[cat\]. This helps identify how sentences are built and which parts belong together. **[Structural Classification of Sentences]** Sentences can be classified based on their **structure**: 1. **Simple Sentence**: Contains one independent clause. - Example: *She runs.* 2. **Compound Sentence**: Contains two or more independent clauses, joined by a conjunction. - Example: *She runs, and he walks.* 3. **Complex Sentence**: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. - Example: *She runs because she loves it.* 4. **Compound-Complex Sentence**: Combines features of compound and complex sentences. - Example: *She runs because she loves it, and he walks.* **[Formal Classification of Sentences]** Sentences can also be classified by **form**: 1. **Declarative**: Makes a statement. - Example: *The sky is blue.* 2. **Interrogative**: Asks a question. - Example: *Is the sky blue?* 3. **Imperative**: Gives a command or request. - Example: *Close the door.* 4. **Exclamatory**: Expresses strong emotion. - Example: *What a beautiful day!* **[Discourse Functions of Sentences]** Sentences serve different functions in communication: 1. **Statements**: Provide information. - Example: *I am learning syntax.* 2. **Questions**: Seek information. - Example: *What is syntax?* 3. **Commands/Requests**: Influence someone's actions. - Example: *Teach me syntax.* 4. **Exclamations**: Express feelings or emotions. - Example: *Syntax is fascinating!* ***Semantics*** Semantics is the study of **meaning in language**. It focuses on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning. **Key Areas in Semantics:** 1. **Word Meaning**: - Examines the meanings of individual words. - Example: *Dog* means a type of animal. 2. **Sentence Meaning**: - Looks at how the arrangement of words creates meaning in sentences. - Example: *The cat chased the mouse* has a different meaning than *The mouse chased the cat.* 3. **Contextual Meaning**: - How context influences meaning. - Example: *I'm feeling blue* means "I'm sad" in a figurative sense. 4. **Ambiguity**: - Some words or sentences have more than one meaning. - Example: *Bank* can mean the edge of a river or a financial institution. **[Set Phrases]** Set phrases are **fixed groups of words** that have a specific, often non-literal, meaning. They cannot easily be altered without losing their meaning. **Examples of Set Phrases:** 1. **Idioms**: Phrases with meanings that can't be guessed from the words themselves. - Example: *Kick the bucket* means "to die." 2. **Collocations**: Words that naturally go together. - Example: *Make a decision* (not *do a decision*). 3. **Proverbs**: Short, well-known sayings that express wisdom or advice. - Example: *Actions speak louder than words.* ***Pragmatics*** Pragmatics is the study of **how language is used in context**. It looks at how people **interpret** meaning based on the situation, the speaker's intentions, and the relationship between the people involved. **Key Points in Pragmatics:** - **Context**: Pragmatics focuses on how the meaning of a sentence can change depending on where, when, and how it\'s used. - Example: *Can you pass the salt?* may not be a question about the ability to pass the salt but a request for the salt. - **Speaker's Intentions**: Sometimes what is said isn't literally what is meant. Pragmatics helps us understand implied meanings. - Example: Saying *It's cold in here* might be a hint to someone to close the window, even if it's not directly stated. **[Cooperative Principle]** The **Cooperative Principle** is a theory by philosopher **Grice** that suggests people generally follow certain rules (called maxims) in conversation to make communication clear and effective. The principle assumes that speakers aim to be understood and will try to cooperate with others to make communication easier. **Key Idea:** - People are expected to contribute to conversations in ways that make sense and help the exchange of information. **[Maxims of Conversation]** Grice outlined four **maxims** (rules) thatpeople typically follow in conversation to make communication clearer. These are part of the **Cooperative Principle**: 1. **Maxim of Quantity**: - Provide the right amount of information---not too little and not too much. - Example: - *Too much*: *The sky is blue, and it's sunny, and I am sitting on a chair in the park, and\...* - *Just right*: *It's a sunny day.* 2. **Maxim of Quality**: - Say only what you believe to be true. Don't provide false information. - Example: *I saw a unicorn in the park* is a violation of this maxim because it's not true. 3. **Maxim of Relation**: - Be relevant in what you say. - Example: - A question: *What's the weather like?* - A relevant answer: *It's sunny today.* 4. **Maxim of Manner**: - Avoid ambiguity; be clear and orderly in your communication. - Example: - *Unclear*: *I'll meet you there, after the thing, when the time\...* - *Clear*: *I'll meet you at 3 PM at the park.* **[Speech Acts]** A **speech act** is an action performed through speaking or writing. Instead of just conveying information, speech acts involve doing something through language. There are three main parts to a speech act: **locutionary act** (what is said), **illocutionary act** (what the speaker intends to do), and **perlocutionary act** (how the listener responds or is affected) **Types of Speech Acts:** 1. **Assertives**: Statements that describe the world or assert facts. - Example: *The sky is blue.* - The speaker is asserting something about the world. 2. **Directives**: Requests or commands asking someone to do something. - Example: *Close the window.* 3. **Commissives**: Promises or commitments to do something. - Example: *I will call you tomorrow.* 4. **Expressives**: Showing feelings or emotions. - Example: *I'm sorry for your loss.* 5. **Declarations**: Changing the world by saying something. - Example: *I now pronounce you husband and wife.* - The act of saying it brings about a change in status. In applied linguistics, the primary concern is the application of knowledge and insights in linguistics to practical areas, mainly language teaching and testing. The distinction between \"applied linguistics\" and \"linguistics applied\" (often abbreviated as A-L and L-A, respectively) revolves around their orientation and objectives. According to Widdowson (2000:5), "The difference between these modes of intervention is that in the case of linguistics applied, the assumption is that the problem can be reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and terms derived from linguistic enquiry itself. That is to say, language problems are amenable to linguistic solutions." In this context, L-A focuses on utilizing language data to explicate and test theories about language itself, emphasizing the development of linguistic knowledge. Conversely, applied linguistics involves a broader and more interdisciplinary approach. Widdowson (2000:5) notes that "intervention is crucially a matter of mediation... applied linguistics has to relate and reconcile different representations of reality, including that of linguistics without excluding others." This highlights that applied linguistics (A-L) addresses language problems not just through linguistic frameworks but also by drawing on other disciplines such as anthropology, education, and psychology. Davies and Elder (2004:11-13) elaborate on this distinction, stating that A-L \"looks outward, beyond language, in an attempt to explain social problems,\" often focusing on practical issues like aphasia or speech impediments. For example, speech therapy studies fall under A-L as they aim to find solutions to real-world language problems. In contrast, L-A \"looks inward,\" concentrating on explicating linguistic theories and using language problems as data to refine these theories. The distinction between A-L and L-A extends to their broader goals and areas of interest. Linguistics, as primarily concerned with language itself, uses language problems to improve linguistic descriptions or to inform teaching and theoretical development. On the other hand, applied linguistics investigates language problems to understand their role in people\'s daily lives and whether interventions are possible or desirable. Thus, applied linguistics is as much concerned with context as with language, often addressing issues within institutional settings such as schools, workplaces, law courts, or clinics. Despite these differences, the boundary between A-L and L-A is not always clear-cut. Widdowson (2000:5) and Davies and Elder (2004:11-13) agree that the distinction between the two is most evident at their extremes. Ultimately, the orientation of the researcher defines the approach. If the goal is to validate a linguistic theory, the research falls under L-A. If the objective is to find practical solutions to language problems, it belongs to A-L. Conclusion: the distinction between applied linguistics and linguistics applied is not easily determined by the topics of interest but rather by the orientation of the researchers and their purpose in investigating a problem. Applied linguists must have a foundational understanding of linguistic principles to carry out their work in an informed and principled manner. They should also be familiar with the broad themes and general concepts developed by linguists in their descriptive accounts of language. The distinction between prescribing and describing language highlights significant debates in linguistics, particularly concerning language norms and variation. Young children often speak idiosyncratically, but when they enter school, they are expected to learn and use language "correctly." Educational success heavily depends on mastering this standardized language form. This raises the question of whether teachers should eliminate dialectal and national variations from students' speech, effectively correcting the influence of parents and regional language practices. A controversial aspect of this debate is the tension between standard forms of language and dialects. The standard language, codified in dictionaries and grammar books, is typically used in written communication and taught in schools. In contrast, dialects---regional and social-class varieties---differ from the standard in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary and are seldom written. Schools serve as a barometer of both language use and broader social values, reflecting the variability and social dynamics of language. Language, inherently subject to variation, differs across individuals, social groups, generations, and nations. It is also used differently in speech and writing. Despite this natural variation, many people remain intolerant of linguistic diversity, striving for a single "standard" way of using language. Applied linguists approach these debates with caution and respect, aiming to understand the nature of variation within language systems and why such variation often becomes a deeply emotive issue. From a linguistics perspective, all language variants are equally valid simply because they exist; no form is inherently more correct than another. Linguists tend to favor description (what does happen) over prescription (what ought to happen), arguing that the standard language is neither superior nor more stable than any other variety. Key arguments supporting this perspective include: 1. Without deviations from the norm, languages would never change or evolve. 2. If standards were absolute, regional standards would never gain independence. 3. Dialects have their own consistent, rule-governed grammars (e.g., the use of double negatives). 4. The standard form of a language is often reflective of the usage of the most economically and politically powerful class or region. Additionally, the grammar of written language differs from that of speech, even among speakers whose variety closely aligns with the standard. Writing, often seen as more prestigious and authoritative, is typically the sole domain of the standard language. Applied linguists have a responsibility to engage with the ongoing tension between prescriptive and descriptive approaches. Their tasks include investigating the reasons behind the conflict, examining the practical consequences of each perspective, and mediating between academic and public concerns. Applied linguists must navigate the divide, finding points of contact between descriptivist and prescriptivist views to inform necessary decisions. Importantly, descriptivist and prescriptivist perspectives should not be viewed as competing alternatives. Correct language use is necessary in specific contexts, such as speech therapy, foreign language teaching, and language testing. While the criteria for correctness may evolve over time, they must exist to provide clarity and consistency. The ultimate task of applied linguistics is to determine what these criteria are, how they are decided, and how they can bridge the gap between the two contrasting perspectives. This mediation between description and prescription is what defines the field and underscores its significance. The concept of \"World Englishes\" refers to the diverse forms of English used globally. English is often described as a \"world language,\" \"global English,\" \"international English,\" or a \"lingua franca,\" serving as a medium for worldwide communication. The term \"World Englishes\" encompasses a broad range of languages related to English, including both standard and non-standard forms such as pidgins and creoles. **Kachru's Three Circles of World Englishes** Braj Kachru (1986, 2005), a scholar from India working in the USA, introduced the model of the three concentric circles to classify the different uses of English worldwide: 1. **The Inner Circle**\ This circle includes countries where English serves as the sole, all-purpose language, with approximately 300 million speakers across 12 countries. These \"Anglo-Englishes\" or \"Older Englishes\" are found in settlement colonies like the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Caribbean. These countries are considered \"norm-providing\" for Standard English. - English is taught as a Native Language (ENL) and functions as the primary language. - It is acquired from previous generations, forming the linguistic foundation in these regions. 2. **The Outer Circle**\ This circle includes countries where English functions as an official or co-official language, such as Nigeria, Kenya, India, Singapore, and the Philippines, with approximately 450 million speakers. These regions, termed \"non-Anglo-Englishes,\" were primarily exploitation colonies. - English is used in administration, media, law, education, and literature, though its role varies across countries. - These are \"norm-developing\" regions, where local standards of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary evolve. - English is taught as a Second Language (ESL) and is used complementarily in various societal domains. 3. **The Expanding Circle**\ This includes countries without strong historical ties to English through colonization but where English has become increasingly significant for trade, education, and diplomacy. With around 1 billion speakers, countries like Hungary, Russia, and Japan fall into this category. - English is recognized as an international language and is taught as a Foreign Language (EFL). - These \"norm-dependent\" regions lack a strong local speaker base to establish independent English norms. English is primarily used in specific contexts like trade, tourism, and international relations. **English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)** English serves as a common language for communication among non-native speakers in areas like international diplomacy, academic conferences, business meetings, and internet forums. This role underscores its global importance in fostering cross-cultural communication. **Types of Language Transmission** The acquisition of English varies widely: 1. **Normal Transmission**\ Language is acquired in early childhood from adults, with children replicating their parents\' linguistic patterns. This process facilitates intergenerational language continuity while allowing for gradual language evolution. 2. **Abnormal Transmission**\ This includes pidginization and creolization. - **Pidginization** involves the informal learning of a simplified, reduced-vocabulary version of a language, often in adulthood, for use as a lingua franca (e.g., Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea). - **Creolization** occurs when a pidgin becomes the first language of a community, often among children, resulting in a restructured language with superficial similarities to English but significant structural differences. 3. **Indirect Transmission**\ English is acquired through formal education rather than in a family setting, often leading to distinct local varieties, such as Standard Singaporean English and Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish). **Variation in English** In the **Inner Circle**, differences in written standards are minimal, but vocabulary and spoken accents show regional variation. Vocabulary differences are most prevalent in colloquial, slang, and taboo areas of usage, where local words often emerge. Spoken accents, too, are highly distinctive across varieties. **Changing Trends** English continues to expand as a world language, increasingly used as a lingua franca by second- and foreign-language speakers. It plays a pivotal role in international diplomacy, academic and business contexts, higher education, and even informal settings like internet forums and amateur sports. For example, in Norway, 80% of doctoral theses are written in English, illustrating its dominance in academia. **Languages in Contact: Bilingualism** Bilingualism can be broadly defined, with two extremes: it can refer to anyone who speaks two languages or to someone who speaks two languages perfectly. However, defining bilingualism is not straightforward and requires consideration of several variables. **Key Variables in Defining Bilingualism** 1. **Proficiency vs. Usage**\ A distinction must be made between the ability to speak a language and its actual use. For example, a person might be able to speak two languages but primarily uses only one, or they may use both but be fluent in just one. 2. **Differences in Linguistic Skills**\ Proficiency can vary across the four core linguistic skills: speaking, reading, writing, and listening. 3. **Dominant Language**\ Most bilinguals do not have equal proficiency in both languages. Usually, one language, known as the \"dominant language,\" is stronger and more developed. 4. **Changing Proficiency Over Time**\ Bilingualism is not static and can evolve depending on the individual's environment and circumstances. These variables highlight the complexity of defining bilingualism in simple terms. **Definitions of Bilingualism** Various scholars have proposed definitions of bilingualism: - **Leonard Bloomfield (1933):** Bilingualism is \"a native-like control of two languages.\" Bloomfield describes extreme cases where foreign language learners become indistinguishable from native speakers and maintain both languages without losing the native one. - **Einar Haugen (1953):** Bilingualism begins \"at the point where the speaker of one language can produce complete, meaningful utterances in the other language.\" - **Uriel Weinreich (1953):** Bilingualism is \"the practice of alternately using two languages,\" with the bilingual being the individual engaged in this practice. - **John MacNamara (1967):** A bilingual is \"anyone who possesses a minimal competence in only one of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in a language other than their mother tongue.\" - **François Grosjean (1982):** Bilinguals \"possess language and communicative skills in two languages at different levels.\" Grosjean emphasized that bilingualism is dynamic, changing over time, and asserted, \"The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person.\" **Types of Bilingualism** According to *The New Encyclopaedia Britannica*, there are two main types of bilingualism: 1. **Coordinate Bilingualism**\ In this type, the individual learns two languages in separate environments, keeping the words of each language distinct, with specific meanings for each. This is often associated with subtractive bilingualism, where learning a second language might come at the expense of the first. **Languages in Contact: Bilingualism** **Types of Bilingualism** The *New Encyclopaedia Britannica* identifies two primary types of bilingualism: 1. **Coordinate Bilingualism**\ In this type, a person learns two languages in separate environments. Words from each language are kept distinct, each with its specific meaning. This is often associated with *subtractive bilingualism*, where learning a second language may come at the expense of the first. 2. **Compound Bilingualism**\ Here, an individual learns two languages in the same context, where they are used concurrently. This results in a fused representation of the languages in the brain. For example, a child raised by bilingual parents develops *additive bilingualism*, maintaining both languages effectively. **Factors Promoting Bilingualism** According to Myers-Scotton (2002: 31), various circumstances encourage bilingualism or shifts to another language for most purposes, supported by studies from scholars like Fishman (1972), Lieberson (1982), Grosjean (1982), Clyne (1997), and Mackey (2003). 1. **Military Invasion and Colonization**\ Military conquests often lead to bilingualism, particularly if the conquering group remains in power over an extended period. For instance, after the Norman Conquest of 1066, close contact with France over two centuries introduced French lexical borrowings and structural changes to English. 2. **Border Areas and Ethnolinguistic Enclaves**\ Residents in border areas or ethnolinguistic enclaves often become bilingual. Borders between nations or ethnic groups create situations where people learn each other's languages. However, the learning is sometimes one-directional, with less numerous or economically disadvantaged groups adopting the language of the dominant group. For example, Hungarian speakers in Slovakia, Ukraine, Austria, and Romania (Transylvania) often learn the dominant language as their second language. 3. **Education**\ Education plays a significant role in bilingualism. Historically, certain languages were seen as hallmarks of an educated individual. For instance, Latin became a crucial language for educated individuals during the spread of Christianity in Europe. 4. **Spread of International Languages**\ The rise of global languages encourages bilingualism. As more people learn a given language, it increases pressure on others to learn it as well. Latin in the Middle Ages and English today serve as prime examples of this phenomenon. 5. **Ethnic Awareness and Nationalism**\ Ethnic identity or nationalism can influence bilingualism. While nationalism may promote monolingualism in new nations, ethnic movements often encourage bilingualism, with the ethnic language viewed as an additional one. 6. **Migration for Social and Economic Reasons**\ Migration for better living conditions often necessitates learning a new language. Mass migrations from Europe to North America, Australia, and New Zealand in the 19th and 20th centuries made learning English essential for economic and social integration.