Day 5 Major Linguistics PDF

# FALCULAN TWINS' REVIEW CENTER ## SESSION 1 - **Linguistics** - the scientific study of language - **Phonetics** - The science of human speech sounds - **Three Categories of Sounds** - **Phoneme** (Abstract; unit to distinguish meaning) - **Phone** (Concrete; human sound,...

# FALCULAN TWINS' REVIEW CENTER ## SESSION 1 - **Linguistics** - the scientific study of language - **Phonetics** - The science of human speech sounds - **Three Categories of Sounds** - **Phoneme** (Abstract; unit to distinguish meaning) - **Phone** (Concrete; human sound, physical realization of phoneme) - **Allophone** (non-distinctive; variant of phoneme) - **Phoneme** - abstract minimal sound unit of a particular language; capable of distinguishing different words in that language. - **Minimal Pair Technique** - words that are almost identical except for ONE SOUND in the SAME POSITION (one phonemic difference) - **Initial**: /dad/-/mad/ - **Vowel**: /dad/-/did/ - **Final**: /dad/-/dab/ - **Branches of Phonetics** - **Articulatory Phonetics** (production) - The oldest branch - Examines the articulatory (vocal) organs and their role in the production of speech sounds - **Acoustic Phonetics** (transmission) - Deals with the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel through the air in the form of sound waves - **Auditory Phonetics** (perception) - Examines the way in which human beings perceive speech sounds through the medium of the ear. - **Main Tasks of Phonetics** - **Notation** - **International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)** - a transcription system that contains symbols for the hundred or so speech sounds that can be distinguished in human language that - **Description** - It is the description (characterization) of speech sounds ## Classification of Phoneme (Segment) - **Vowel** - Produced by shaping the oral cavity to give the sound a particular color or timbre. - *All vowel sounds are VOICED.* - **Monophthong** - A single vowel sound - /i/seen /e/day/u/food - **Diphthong** - A complex two-vowel sound - /aI/hi/aU/bow /ɔI/toy - **Triphthong** - A three-vowel sound that glides together, diphthong + monophthong - /aU/ + /ə/ = [aUe] hour - /aI/ + /ə/ = [ale] fire - **Consonant** - Produced with partial restrictions of the vocal tract. - *Consonant sounds can be VOICED or VOICELESS.* ## Table of Place & Manner of Articulation | | Plosive/Stop (blocked) | Fricative (impeded not blocked) | Affricate (blocked then released) | Nasal (through the nose) | Liquids (some obstruction; not fricative) | Glides (always followed by vowel; not found in the end) | | :------- | :---------------------- | :---------------------------- | :------------------------------- | :----------------------- | :--------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------- | | **BL** | [p] [b] | [f] [v] | | [m] | | [w] | | **LD** | | [0] [0] | | | | | | **ID** | | | | | | | | **A** | [t] [d] | [s] [z] | [t∫] [dz] | [n] | [1] [r] | | | **P** | | | [] [3] | | | | | **V** | [k] [g] | [h] | | | | [j] | | **G** | (glottal stop) | | | | | | ## Phonology - The study of the sound system of language: the rules that govern pronunciation - **Key Terms** - **Syllable** – A phonological unit consisting of one sound - **Onset** - Consonants or consonant blends before the rime - **Rime/rhyme** – Consists of a nucleus and the consonant following it - **Nucleus** -usually a vowel (sometimes consonant sonorant) - **Coda** – any consonant following the rime/rhyme - **SYLLABLE** - **ONSET** - **RIME** - **NUCLEUS** - **CODA** - **Blend** – Two or more consonants; when combined two sounds are heard. - **Digraph** - Two or more consonants; when combined one sound is heard. - **Sibilant** – An example of a fricative sound; a hissing sound (most are fricative) ## Allophones - Systematic variations of a phoneme; specific properties of a phoneme vary according to its position in a word. - **Aspirated** (sound h) - **Unaspirated** (sound) - If initial voiceless stop - After the sibilant sound ## Phonological Conditioning - The phonological differences between the allomorphs of a morpheme are often due to the phonological environment. - **Sibilant** /ǝz/ - bushes - **Voiceless** /s/ - cats - **Voiced** /2/ - dogs ## Morphophonemic Process - **Assimilation** - A process that results from a sound becoming more like another nearby sound in terms of one or more of its phonetic characteristics - Example: input - imput - **Dissimilation** - A process that results in two sounds becoming less alike in articulatory or acoustic terms - Example: governor - governor (Haplology) - **Deletion** - A process that removes a weak segment from certain phonetic contexts; usually in rapid speech - Example: handbag - hanbag (Syncope) - know - now (Aphaeresis) - Lacoste - Lacos (Aposcope) - **Insertion** - A process that inserts a syllable or a non-syllabic segment within an existing string of segment - Example: hamster - hamster (Epenthesis) - star - estar (Prothesis) - **Metathesis** - A process that reorders or reverses a sequence of segments. - Example: ask --- aks ## Morphology - The study of word formation; the study of morphemes and words - **Morphemes** - The smallest meaningful units of language, which cannot be subdivided without losing their meaning. - **Lexeme** – the basic unit of the word/root word/base form - **Syntactic word**- an inflected word; all with the same lexeme belong to a paradigm. - **Orthographical word** – how a word is composed of alphabetical graphemes. - Words are composed of one or more than one morpheme. - **Morphs**: physical realizations of morphemes - **Typology of Morphemes** - **Lexical Morpheme** - Have a sense in and of themselves - Also known as CONTENT WORDS - Ex: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs (NAVA) - **Grammatical Morphemes** - No sense in of themselves - express some relationship between lexical morphemes; - known as FUNCTION WORDS - Ex: prepositions, articles, conjunctions - **Free Morphemes** - Can stand alone words - Ex. talk, in, sing - **Bound Morphemes** - Cannot stand alone as words; AFFIXES (affixes, derivational, zero, empty) - **Inflectional Morphemes** - All are in form of suffixes. - Eight inflectional affixes - Does NOT affect category - (see Table of Inflectional Affixes) - **Derivational Morphemes** - Can be prefix or suffix - Infinite number - Can change syntactic category; sometimes affects SENSE - Ex. preboard; national ## Table of Inflectional Affixes (8 Inflections in English) | | Noun (2) | Modifiers (2) | Verbs (4) | | :------------------- | :---------------- | :--------------- | :----------------- | | **-s {Plural}** | boys | -er | -s {Present} | | | dogs | {Comparative} | -ed {Past} | | **-'s {Possessive}** | boy's | -est | -en | | | dog's | {Superlative} | {Participle} | | | | | -ing | | **Null/Zero Morpheme** | | | {Progressive} | | | Morphemes NOT physically present in the word | | | | | Ex: Sheep | | | | **Allomorph** | | | | | | Lexical Conditioning | | | | | The one responsible for the alteration is the lexeme. | | | | | Example: ox - oxen | | | | **Empty Morpheme** | | | | | | Present in form, but NO Actual meaning | | | | | Ex: factual | | | ## Word Formation Processes 1. **Category Extension** - This involves the extension of a morpheme from one syntactic category to another. 2. **Derivation** - This involves the addition of a derivational affix, changing the syntactic category of the item to which it is attached. 3. **Back Formation** - A word formed by removing what is mistaken for an affix; change in syntactic form. 4. **Clipped Form** - A shortened form of a preexisting morpheme; NO change in syntactic form. 5. **Compounding** - This involves creating a new word by combining two free morphemes. - **Open** - towel rack; coffee cup - **Closed** - everywhere; greenhouse 6. **Blending** - A combination of parts of two preexisting forms. 7. **Root Creation** - A brand-new word based on no preexisting morpheme 8. **Proper Name** - This process forms a word from a proper name. 9. **Folk Etymology** - This process forms a word by substituting a common native form for an exotic form with a similar pronunciation. 10. **Acronym** - A readable word formed from the first letter(s) of each word in a phrase. 11. **Initialism/Alphabetism** - A word read per initial formed from the first letter(s) of each word in a phrase. 12. **Abbreviation** - A word formed from the names of the first letters of the prominent syllables of a word. 13. **Suppletion** - A wholly different morpheme is used to replace and show grammatical contrast with another morpheme. ## Syntax - The study of sentence structure and phrases - **Left-to-Right Ordering** - The left-to-right sequence of items within a phrase is governed by principles that are codified in phrase structure (PS) rules. - **Subject-Verb-Object (S-V-O) Ordering** - The basic underlying order for a declarative written sentence in English | | Phrase | Clause | Sentence | | :------- | :------------------------------- | :---------------------------- | :------------------------------------------ | | | It is an expression that is a constituent in a sentence and is the expansion of a head (keyword). It can happen that a phrase is realized by a single word. | A clause is a group of words that may contain a subject and a predicate and used as a part of a sentence. | They are composed not directly out of words but of constituents which may consist of more than one word called phrases. | - **PHRASE** 1. **Noun Phrase** - It must contain a noun. The noun may be preceded by a determiner, an adjective phrase, or both, and it may be followed by a prepositional phrase. - Ex. The very honest man in the room 2. **Verb Phrase/Verb Complex** - It must contain a verb. The verb may be followed by a noun phrase, and adjective phrase, or neither. The verb phrase may end in a prepositional phrase, but need not. - Ex. spoke gently to me 3. **Adjective Phrase** - It must contain an adjective. The adjective may be preceded by an adverb or an intensifier. - Ex. very honest 4. **Prepositional Phrase** - It consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase. - Ex. in the room 5. **Adverbials** - It may be an adverbial clause, an adverb phrase, or a prepositional phrase - Ex. Froilan walked before the guy came back (adverbial clause) - Froilan walked very quickly (adverbial phrase) - Froilan walked towards the door (adverbial clause) - **CLAUSE** - **Independent Clause (main clause)** - is a clause that can stand alone because its meaning is complete - Ex. The cat is sleeping. - **Dependent Clause (subordinate clause)** - is a clause that cannot stand by itself because of its incomplete meaning. - Ex. When the cat is sleeping, - When the cat is sleeping. (fragment) - **Types of Dependent Clause** | | Dependent Clause | Example | | :-: | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 1. | **Adjective Clause** - modifies a noun or a pronoun by telling what kind or which | I spoke the truth that ruined our friendship. | | 2. | **Adverb Clause** - modifies an adjective, a verb, and another adverb. | The class concluded after the suggestions were analyzed. | | 3. | **Embedded Clause** - placed within the main clause in a sentence | The farmer sprayed health-threatening pesticides, which are harmful chemicals, in his farm and it shocked the community | - **SENTENCE** | | Sentence | Example | | :-: | :----------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 1. | **Simple** - IC | He is cute. | | 2. | **Compound** - IC + IC (connected by FANBOYS) | He is cute but he smells bad. | | 3. | **Complex** - IC + DC | He is cute because he has a chubby face. | | 4. | **Compound Complex** - IC + IC + DC | Although he has no confidence, he is cute and he has a nice character. | - *IC – Independent Clause* - *DC – Dependent Clause* - **SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES** - **Structure of Predication** - subject + predicate - ex: The healthy girl ate the breakfast, bread and butter. ## Structure of Complementation, Modification and Coordination | Structure | Example | | :------------------------------------ | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Structure of Complementation** | verbal element + complement | | **Structure of Modification** | head word + modifier | | **Structure of Coordination** | equivalent grammatical units | - **Ex:** - **Complementation** - ate the food - **Modification** - healthy girl - **Coordination** - bread and butter ## Grammatical Function - What constituents may perform in the sentence - Ex. Subject, predicate, object, adverbial ## Syntactic Categories - They name the grammatical category to which the constituent belongs. - Ex: nouns, pronouns, verbs ## Semantics - The study of word meaning - **Lexical Decomposition** - This method represents the sense of a word in terms of the semantic features that comprise it. - This method allows us to characterize the senses of a potentially infinite set of words with a finite number of semantic features. - **例:** (Semantic feature) - *Ex: | | Man | Woman | Boy | Girl | | ---- | ---- | ------ | ---- | ---- | | | + | + | + | - | | | + | + | + | - | - **Three Areas of Semantics** - **Sense** (meaning) - The study of sense (meaning) can be divided into two areas: speaker-sense and linguistic sense. - **Speaker-Sense -** The speaker's intention in producing some. linguistic expression; non-literal - Situationally independent - **Linguistic-Sense -** The meaning of a linguistic expression as part of a language; literal - Situationally dependent - **WORD** - **Referent** - **Truth** - **Ambiguity** - A word is lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense. - **Ex: the word 'set'** - **Homonyms** - Two or more phonologically and orthographically identical lexemes have completely different, unrelated meanings. - *Ex: - ball (round object that you can throw or kick) - ball (social event at which you can dance)* - **Polysemes** - The meaning of one lexeme is metaphorically extended on the basis of some similarity. - *Ex: - leg (of a man) - leg (of a table)* - **Heteronyms** - Two or more orthographically identical lexemes have completely different, unrelated meanings with different phonological identity. - *Ex: - tear (from the eyes) - tear (to rip apart an object)* - **Synonymy** - Two words are synonymous if they have the same sense; that is, if they have the same values for all of their semantic features. - *Ex: conceal and hide; big and large; tiny and minute* - Note: Likely, there are no absolute synonyms in any language- that is, words that mean exactly the same thing in all contexts. - **Antonymy** - Two words are antonyms if their meanings differ only in the value for a single semantic feature. - **Binary Antonyms** - Pairs that exhaust all linguistic possibilities along some dimension - *Ex: dead and alive* - **Gradable Antonyms**- Pairs that describe opposite ends of a continuous dimension - *Ex: Hot and cold* - **Converse Antonyms**- Pairs that describe the relationship between two items from opposite perspectives - *Ex: above and below* - **Hyponymy** - A word that contains the meaning of a more general word, known as the superordinate (hypernym). - A word whose meaning contains all the same feature values of another word, plus some additional feature values. - *Ex: Also referred to as inclusion* - *Ex: Oak contains the meaning of tree; therefore, oak is a hyponym of the superordinate tree.* - **Reference** | | Referent | Extension | Prototype | Stereotype | | :-: | :-------------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | | 1. | The entity identified by the use of a referring expression such as a noun or a noun phrase is the referent of that expression | The set of all potential referents for a referring expression | A typical member of the extension of a referring expression is a prototype of that expression | A list of characteristics describing a prototype is said to be a stereotype | | 2. | flower | list of flowers | tulips | – has petals | | 3. | | | | – has stalks | | 4. | | | | – has leaves | - **Coreference** - Two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real-world entity - *Ex. mercury and the nearest planet to the sun* - **Anaphora** - A linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression following the antecedent-pronoun pattern - *Ex. If a man has talent and can't use it, he's failed." (antecedent) (pronoun)* - **Cataphora** - A linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression following the pronoun-antecedent pattern - *Ex. If you want some, there's coffee in the pot. (pronoun) (antecedent)* - **Deixis** - A deictic expression has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on the speaker and his or her personal, spatial, and temporal orientation. - *Ex. And meet me there tonight (personal) (spatial) (temporal)* ## Truth - The study of truth or truth conditions in semantics | | Analytic Sentences (linguistic truths) | Contradictory Sentences (linguistic falsities) | Synthetic Sentences (empirical truths or falsities) | | :-: | :----------------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 1. | One that is necessarily TRUE simply by the virtue of the words in it | One that is necessarily FALSE as a result of the words in them | not TRUE OR FALSE; they do or do not accurately describe some state of affairs in the world. | | 2. | True by definition | False by virtue of the language itself. | True or false by virtue of the state of the extralinguistic world. | | 3. | Ex: A bachelor is unmarried. | Ex: A bachelor is a married man. | Ex: Our neighbor is a married man. | ## Entailment and Presupposition - **Entailment** - It is a proposition expressed in a sentence that follows necessarily from another sentence. - The relation of entailment is unidirectional; from specific to general - *Ex: - Martina bought apples. - Martina bought fruits. - Martina bought goods from the market .* - **Presupposition** - It is a proposition expressed in a sentence that must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. - *Ex: - Martina no longer writes poetry. - Martina wrote poetry before.* ## Pragmatics - The study of language use in particular situations (linguistic and physical context). - The study of how language is affected by the context in which it occurs. - The study of intended speaker-meaning. ## Implicature - An implied proposition or statement that is not part of the utterance and that does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance. - *Ex: - John: Uncle Chester is coming over for dinner tonight. - Mary: I guess I'd better hide the liquor. - Possible Implicature: Uncle Chester has a drinking problem* - Three important points to note: 1. The implicature is not part of the utterance. 2. The implicature is not an entailment. 3. It is possible for an utterance to raise more than one implicature. ## Conversational Maxims - **Cooperative Principle** - the assumption that participants in a conversation are cooperating with each other. - **Maxim of Quality** - Participant should give no more or less informative than required in a conversation. - **Maxim of Quantity** - Participant should be truthful and based on sufficient evidence required in a conversation. - **Maxim of Relation** - Participant's statement should be relevant to the subject of the conversation. - **Maxim of Manner** - Participant's statement should be in a reasonably clear fashion; not vague, ambiguous, or excessively wordy. ## Flouting - The intentional violation of a maxim for the purpose of conveying an unstated proposition. ## Speech Acts - An utterance can be used to perform an act - **Locutionary Act** - The act of simply uttering a sentence from a language - It is a description of what the speaker says. - **Illocutionary Act** - This is what the speaker does in uttering a sentence. - **Perlocutionary Act** - the reaction of the hearers ## Direct VS Indirect Illocutionary Acts - **Direct Illocutionary Acts** - It is issued when the syntactic form of the utterance matches the illocutionary force of the utterance | Utterance | Illocutionary Act | Syntactic Form | | :-------- | :---------------- | :--------------- | | Keep quiet. | Directive | Imperative | | Do you know Mary? | Yes-No question | Yes-No interrogative | - **Indirect Illocutionary Acts** - It is issued when the syntactic form of the utterance does not match the illocutionary force of the utterance | Utterance | Illocutionary Act | Syntactic Form | | :------------------------------------------------------- | :---------------- | :--------------- | | You might give me a hand with this. (Give me a hand with this) | Directive | Declarative | | And you are... (Who are you?) | Wh-question | Declarative | - **-End-**