Philosophy 2nd Quarter Reviewer PDF

Philosophy 2nd Quarter Reviewer Freedom The human capacity to act (or not to act) as we choose or prefer without any external compulsion or restraint. It is an intrinsic and essential property of a person. indication of human Important freedom is the abilit...

Philosophy 2nd Quarter Reviewer Freedom The human capacity to act (or not to act) as we choose or prefer without any external compulsion or restraint. It is an intrinsic and essential property of a person. indication of human Important freedom is the ability to MAKE CHOICES and PERFORM ACTIONS. Our freedom to act sets us apart from other beings. Difference of Animals and Humans ANIMALS HUMANS Responds to commands can choose the course of action to take Trained and conditioned to perform when given a stimulus or faced with a act instinctively (actions are certain situation predetermined responses to certain stimuli) Eg: task of cleaning your room  Aristotle (The Power of Volition) Volition in this sense is the faculty or power to use or discharge one's will. If there were no intellect, there would be no will. The will of humanity is an instrument of free choice. It is within the power of everyone to be good or bad, or worthy or worthless. The happiness of every human being is in his own hands, to preserve and develop, or to cast away. For Aristotle, a human being is rational. Reason is a divine characteristic. If there were no intellect, there would be no will. St. Thomas Aquinas (Freedom is Spirituality and Love) Freedom, for St. Thomas, is the manner intellectual beings seek universal goodness. It is a condition of the will arising from our nature being in the kind of world that we inhabit. St. Thomas considers the human being as a moral agent. Our spirituality separates us from animals; it delineates moral dimension of our fulfillment in an action. Through our spirituality, we have a conscience. Whether we choose to be "good" or "evil" becomes our responsibility. St. Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologica) establishes the existence of God as a first cause. And as God's creations, human beings have the unique power to change themselves and things around them for the better.  Jean Paul Sartre (Individual Freedom) Existentialism is a philosophical movement known for its inquiry on human existence, which means "to exist". For Sartre, the human person builds the road to the destiny of his/her choosing; he/she is the creator. Sartre's Existentialism stems from this principle: existence precedes essences (Human being is solely responsible for their actions because we choose who we are.) Sartre emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. Freedom means exercising our capacity to make decisions, change our life path and direct the course of our lives through our own steering. Freedom is something that is exercised through our CHOICES. Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke (Theory of Social Contract) 1. Hobbes Rousseau and Locke define the freedom of an individual in the context of having a government to rule them (contract), which is the basis of notion of moral obligation and duty. 2. Social Contract - an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher authority. 3. It is a necessity that we must assure for the government and people to work as one. From this understanding also arises certainty that we have freedom. Kinds of Freedom 1. Physical Freedom - Refers to the absence of any PHYSICAL RESTRAINT. The person has the freedom of mobility to go where he/ she wants to go. 2. Psychological Freedom - Also called as "freedom of choice". The person is free to perform actions that he/ she considers right and wise. A person is also free to act or not to act. - Psychological freedom is INNATE and CANNOT BE DENIED AS A PERSON. - Example o Freedom to choose your friends o Freedom to choose your partner o Freedom to choose your course in college o Freedom to be what you want to be 3. Moral Freedom - Using freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness. - Example o Doing charitable works o Participating on outreach activities o Being sensitive to the needs of other o Being prudent on the use of social media o Participating volunteer works. Positive, Negative, and Absolute Freedom Positive Freedom Negative Freedom Absolute kind of freedom that requires refers to the "absence of no form of hindrance that active effort; has control or interference"; absence would prevent from doing mastery of his/ herself and of what you want. Should has the strength to do what is coercion or interference. freedom be absolute? good. This is doing the right The Freedom whatever Definitely NO- freedom thing and exercising our you want. It's considered always had its limitations. freedom in a responsible negative because you Freedom is always coupled manner. For example: you will failed to use freedom in with RESPONSIBILITY. finish first the school a responsible manner. requirements before hanging out with friends. Freedom and Responsibility  (Part 2 – Ethics) Choices (Freedom comes with great responsibilities) It is an absolute understanding that all actions have consequences. Freedom involves choice. Chance and choosing are incommensurable. If a person has the capacity to choose, then that person can be held responsible over the consequences of his/her actions. Freedom is the power to be what you want to be and the ability to decide and create your self. Many of the characteristics that define our personality are often a product of our choices. Freedom gives you the ability to strive to achieve goal. Freedom is rooted in the human person's self-determination and the exercise of intellect and free will. A person's actions determine what kind of person he/ she becomes. Freedom entails certain RESPONSIBILITY Freedom requires a degree of control from the person who exercises it (eg: addiction, impulsive behavior) To lose control of oneself diminishes human freedom and dehumanizes the person 2 Elements that define freedom Voluntariness Responsibility refers to the ability of a person to act out of refers to the person being accountable for his/ her own free will and his/ her actions and their consequence. self-determination. - A person who had no awareness of the - Decisions are made out of his/ her own effect of his/ her actions can be free will considered - Also means that a person may act even if as acting with diminished freedom. he/ she is not required or called to take action. - Another reality that we have to face as - Voluntary acts are free acts which can be we assigned a corresponding moral value. experience/ exercise our freedom is the - Whenever we decide to take action, this fact that freedom is experienced through results in a certain consequence. the act of making choices. The Nature of the Choices We Make  The Act of Making a Choice Understanding the importance of being prudent in making choices, you will realize that any deliberate act of choosing involves evaluating the alternatives. o The concept of weighing the reasons explained that when you are choosing, the act involves not only weighing the reasons but giving weight to reasons. o After you have chosen each alternative, you will realize that some considerations carry more weight than the others. That is why you choose one alternative and disregard the other. ETHICS ▪ Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the systematic questioning and critical examination of the underlying principles of morality. ▪ A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause unjustified harm. ▪ A moral decision is a choice made based on a person's ethics, manners, character, and what they believe is proper behavior. These decisions tend to affect not only our own well-being, but the well-being of others. Intellectual Choice vs. Practical Choice Intellectual Choice — This is a choice which is deliberately selected based on a moral standpoint. ▪ They are normative answers about what we ought to do from a moral system that we uphold and its moral principles. ▪ These normative answers would take into consideration the behavior which the society will accept. For example, when you are to decide in a moral issue, you can try to give intellectual choice as a normative answer. Here you are simply assuming because you are not, as it were, facing that actual moral situation described in the dilemma. In this case, the answers that you are inclined to give are prescriptive in this imaginary and hypothetical situation. Practical Choice a choice which is borne out of psychological and emotional considerations. ▪ Practical choices are made when confronted with the actual situation, and usually affected by psychological aspect of the person embroiled in the moral situation or dilemma. ▪ For instance, psychological and emotional stress and lack of time to deliberate during an actual moral situation may affect a person's moral decision in that situation. A person may be so engulfed by emotions that he may sometimes fail to make the right choice. Likewise, stress could make a person's practical choice inconsistent with his intellectual choice. Moral Dilemma  ▪ Dilemma- a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable. ▪ When dilemmas involve human actions which have moral implications, they are called ethical or moral dilemmas. ▪ Moral dilemmas are situations where persons, who are called "moral agents" in ethics, are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner. Three conditions that must be present in moral dilemmas 1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision about which course of action is best. 2. There must be different courses of action to choose from. 3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always compromised. Evaluate and Exercise Prudence in Choice ▪ When we are exercising our choice, we must always be cautious and aware of the choices that we make, as well as the implications of these in the future. ▪ The capacity of an individual to make good choices comes from his/her accumulated experiences and values. ▪ Always remember that when we make choices, we make choices not for ourselves but also for the things that will affect that choice. Choices: Consequences and Sacrifices ▪ We must take into consideration the necessary sacrifices that we must take for us to grow. ▪ There are times that when we decide, we take risks, may it be a sacrifice or consequence, and the tendency of humans to take such daunting tasks comes from his experiences and values. ▪ In totality, the situation and progress of a person in a situation falls on the result, that is our goal depends solely the weighted consequences we must bear and the sacrifices we must endure. How can I exercise my freedom in a responsible and beneficial manner? ▪ Human freedom, though essential is NOT ABSOLUTE Human freedom should be exercised with control and a recognition of reasonable limits. ▪ Limiting personal freedom requires sacrifice to certain self-interests and accept certain realities that are beyond control. ▪ Our sense of right and wrong guides us on recognizing and deciding on the limitations to our freedom. ▪ Freedom should also be exercised with regard for knowledge and truth. It is necessary to cultivate the intellectual virtue of PRUDENCE in making sound choice. ▪ In exercising our freedom, we should also recognize and uphold not only our individual freedom but also the freedom of others Freedom should be exercised with due regard for the welfare of other persons. The Given" and the "Chosen" These "givens" or pre determined things do not negate our freedom but give us the opportunities to exercise our freedom when we determine ourselves. Use our freedom in a good way so that we may become better people and better versions of ourselves. The Human Person in the Environment Environmental philosophy Discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents. - Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes. - This means that as human person, we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but also with other living and non-living elements in our environment. - Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that changes in our environment affect us. Three major views on the relationship between humanity and the environment 1. Anthropocentrism - focuses on the significant role of human kind in the world and considers nature as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. This view believes that humans are the most important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources. 2. Biocentrism - believes that humans are not only significant species on the planet, and that all organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view drives the activities of humane organizations that advocate the ethical treatment of animals. 3. Ecocentrism - places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. This view believes that humankind is part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant ROLE AS STEWARDS or guardians OF NATURE. Environmental Aesthetics Philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the nature beauty of the surroundings and contribute the well-being of the people and the other organisms living in it. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future generation.  3 Important Principles of Sustainability 1. Environmental integrity refers to maintaining the state of the environment. This means that human activities should not disrupt the ecosystem and human communities located in the area. 2. Economic efficiency refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste. Prudence - ability to regulate one's actions and behavior. Frugality - being thrifty with the use of one's resources. 3. Equity demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them. Prudence and Frugality Prudence and frugality are two of the many virtues that can help us in addressing various environmental problems and solving the challenges these problems have created. Prudence Frugality  Prudence is the capacity to direct Frugality is the quality of being and discipline one's activities and thrifty. behavior using reason. It is the careful supervision of one's It is the behavior that is cautious resources. and, as much as possible, keeps Frugality, is also the cautious away from any risks. management of material Prudence is considered as an resources, especially money. A ecological virtue since it can help frugal person always invests time us become wiser, more to think carefully just to save a lot responsible in terms of using our of money. natural resources and, most importantly, become more appreciative of nature's essential value. How can frugality help in solving environmental problems? One of the main benefits of being a frugal person is that it is environmentally friendly. When someone is being frugal in using natural resources like electricity and water, this person is putting lesser damage on our natural environment. A frugal person usually lives out the idea of "reduce, reuse, recycle" just to minimize expenses. This same idea also minimizes overall environmental impact. THEORIES IN RADICAL ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY Deep ecology Social Ecology Ecofeminism Arne Naess, proponent Murray Bookchin, It assumes that male-centered view of nature is the root of Deep ecology, proponent of Social cause of ecological problems. assumes that all living ecology, believes that things possess equal value and intrinsic ecological problems can be To address environmental problems humanity has to worth regardless of traced to social problems. remove the superior vs. inferior in human relations. their usefulness or utility to other beings. Societies that are Ecofeminism also believes that a society that tolerates the structured around oppression of women is directly linked with its tendency to This is experiencing hierarchies as well as tolerate the abuse of the environment and the ourselves as part of economic classes use their degradation of nature. the living earth and authority to dominate finding our role in natural resources and It also features the existing patriarchal and capitalist systems in protecting the planet. exploit the environment for our society as social and economic exploitative to the profit and self-interest. detrimental of women and nature. This theorv benefits the social and political agenda of both female and nature. The Human Person in Society (Patt 1) The Human Person in the Society plays a vital role in promoting the universal idea that humans have roles and responsibilities in their respective community and in the society as a whole What is society? What drives human beings to establish societies? The human person by nature is a "social being" Throughout a person's life, he or she experiences a variety of relationships that help shape him or her as a person. SOCEIY - an organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common territory and culture. Society also refers to a companionship or friendly association with others, an alliance, a community, or a union. Philosophers consider society as the product of deliberate actions by individuals who come together in pursuit of a common goal.  As individual persons, members of society are able to transform themselves and attain development through their interactions within society. In tum, humans are also able to influence society through their actions. Society and its various aspects provide support that ensures the development of the human person. Society also provides opportunities to further growth in the coming years. The Social Contract Theory During the Age of Enlightenment, social philosophers studied the natural laws that govern human societies. Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau were among the most prominent social theorist who tackled the origins of human society Social Contract Theory according to Thomas Hobbes Persons in their natural states are governed by their desires and those often lead to conflict with their fellowmen. Society isa means by which people seek to control their natural tendencies and impose order. Individuals who establish societies enter into a "social contract"- an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher authority. Social Contract Theory according to JOHN LOCKE Persons in their natural states are more cooperative and reasonable, and that society is formed through the consent of the individuals that organized it (consent of the governed) Locke's social contract Sa covenant among individuals to cooperate and share the burden of upholding the welfare of the society. People have the right to overthrow a failed government.  Social Contract Theory according to Jean Jacques Rousseau Advocate the concept of “general will” Based on the assumption that the people have empowered the government to act on their behalf, and that it is considered to be the best judge of what is most beneficial for society. Social Contract Theory as viewed by JOHN RAWLS Human beings approach social cooperation in a rational manner in order to meet their individual self-interests. Introduced the concept of oriqinal position in which he imagined humans as having a "veil of ignorance" -no knowledge of one's own characteristics such as gender, race or social status. In this state, humans would naturally seek a just and fair society to look out for their own interests. Although there are variations on the social contract theory, one common feature they all have is that different individuals enter into a kind of agreement with another to form a society.  Individual members put aside their self-interest in order to create a community where they may live in harmony with others. It is important to note that society is founded on the concept of the common good The common good refers to the social conditions which enable persons and groups to fulfill their goals and achieve well-being. Example: peace within community, clean and safe public spaces, efficient transport system, and efficient public service Intersubjectivity Part 2 Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) and Underprivileged Sectors of the Society Person's with Disabilities (PWD's) According to the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the term "persons with disabilities" is used to apply to those persons who have long-term physical, psychological, intellectual, or sensory impairments which in interaction with several unreasonable or discriminatory barriers may obstruct their full and active participation as equal members of the society. Paralympics Much like us, persons with certain conditions have also dreams and ambitions in life. Some of them wants to become teachers, lawyers, artists, athletes, and many more. Hellen Keller (1880- 1968) American author, political activist 1st deaf-blind person to earn bachelor's degree Anne Sullivan- Hellen's mentor who was visually-impaired as well.  Published her autobiography, The Story of My Life Nicholas James "Nick" Vujicic (born 1982) Australian evangelist and motivational speaker who was born with phocomelia, a condition in which a person is born with no arms or legs. Founder of Life Without Limbs, a non-profit organization and ministry. Roselle Ambubuyog (born 1980) 1st visually-impaired Filipino to graduate summa cum laude from Ateneo de Manila University in 2001. Despite her handicap, she was a consistent academic honoree- valedictorian (elementary & high school) Product and support manager at Code Factory, the world's leading provider of software that allow the visually-impaired to access mobile devices. Underprivileged Sectors of the Society The underprivileged is being described as the group of people that is suffering from different forms of social deprivation such as denial of the enjoyment of similar level of comfort and/or fundamental rights as most of the members of a civilized society due to several economic and social circumstances. This group is less in terms of material possessions and basic social benefits, like education and health services, in comparison to most of the people in a certain society. Furthermore, this group of individuals is facing various dimensions of poverty, such as income poverty, health deprivation, human rights violations, gender inequity, and many more. These dimensions have incapacitated many members of the human society like women, children, and the LGBT community wherein all are classified as underprivileged. The marginalized sectors, which include jeepney drivers, farmers, fisherfolks, and many more, are also considered as underprivileged. Marginalized sectors are the groups of individuals that are experiencing the so-called marginalization, which is the act of downgrading a person, a class of  people, or a concept to an insignificant, secondary, or powerless situation in a society. Globally, women and children are being subjected to oppression and different forms of exploitation, such as prostitution and pornography that assault human dignity and violate human rights. They have turned into slaves of these criminal activities because of different social and economic conditions like poverty and lack of opportunity. Women and children have also become victims of domestic and sexual violence. According to the Philippine National Police's - Women and Children Protection Center (PNP-WCPC), 602 incidents of sexual assault were recorded from March 17, 2020 to May 23, 2020 or an average of eight cases a day. These were the times when Luzon and other parts of the country were on enhanced community quarantine because of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). LGBTQI++ Community The members of the LGBT community are also victims of different types of violence. Many of them are experiencing numerous adverse treatments like bullying, discrimination, physical violence, and even sexual assault because of their sexual orientations and gender identities. They are also facing work-related issues. Based on the first-ever Corporate SOGIE Diversity and Inclusiveness (CSDI) Index, a study that was administered by the Philippine LGBT Chamber of Commerce and research firm Cogencia and was participated by 100 Philippine-based companies, not a single Filipino company has any implementing policy that will protect their employees who are members of the LGBT community from various forms of discrimination within the working environment. According to Emmanuel Levinas (1905-1995), a French philosopher, we must go beyond ourselves and concentrate more on rendering assistance passionately and acting with concern toward others, particularly to the members of our society who have become victims of different dimensions of poverty. We should have the courage to defend them from any form of social deprivation and discrimination. We can do this by voicing out our concerns and obligating our government officials to enact bills and ordinances, or strictly implement the laws that we already have, that aim to protect the underprivileged from several oppressive treatments and make these people enjoy the same social services,  such as education, employment, and healthcare, as most of the members of the society. Also, we can help the underprivileged by sincerely and consistently joining in campaigns or movements that seek to empower them. It is our obligation to help the underprivileged, since they are considered as vulnerable to different forms of human rights violation and social deprivation. It is also important to promote inclusivity- the practice or policy of providing equal access to opportunities and resources for people who might otherwise be excluded or marqinalized, such as those havinq physical or mental disabilities or belonging to other minority groups. Most importantly, it is our moral duty to uphold human dignity and importance of life, because even though we are totally different from each other, our shared dignity and humanity is the thing that unifies us all.