Philosophers PDF

Part II Chapter 3 The Great Philosophers of Europe What is Philosophy? Defining Philosophy is not easy. Part of what makes it difficult to find a consensus among philosophers about the definition of their discipline is precisely that they have frequently come to it...

Part II Chapter 3 The Great Philosophers of Europe What is Philosophy? Defining Philosophy is not easy. Part of what makes it difficult to find a consensus among philosophers about the definition of their discipline is precisely that they have frequently come to it from different fields, with different interests and concerns, and that they therefore have different areas of experience upon which they find it especially necessary or meaningful to reflect Philosophy is the intellectual, abstract, and methodical examination of reality as a whole or of essential characteristics of human life and experience. The word is originally Greek and came to us via Latin philosophia, which means "love of wisdom". Philosophers of the west: Who are they? They are influential philosophers who are responsible for the most influential ideas in history. They are the thinkers who put for the notions that still inform our understanding of the human condition today—groundbreaking, illuminating, ingenious; notions about reasoning, reality, spirituality, consciousness, dreams, social organization, human behavior, logic, and even love. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy The ideas of thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle who were Greek philosophers laid the foundations of Western philosophy, and their ideas continue to impact its understanding of the world today. The foundational ideas laid down by great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle still influence our understanding of the world today. These brilliant scholars began to use reason and logic to try and unravel the workings of the cosmos. They also explored the intricacies of human morality. But who were these ancient Greek philosophers? And what were their key ideas? From pre-Socratic like Thales of Miletus through to Plato and Aristotle, we’ll discuss the famous thinkers that guided philosophy and science for thousands of years. The pre-Socratic philosophers Thales of Miletus (624/623 – c. 548/545 BC) – The First Greek Philosopher Philosophy in the 7th century BC was more concerned with natural science than with moral issues. Thales of Miletus was one of the first Greek philosophers to focus on scientific thought. Thales was born in the city of Miletus in Asia Minor in 624 BC and 27 was part of a new movement of thinkers trying to figure out how the universe was built. The philosophical branch of metaphysics was this. Thales was a Monist, which meant that he believed that the universe was built around one element. Thales arrived at this conclusion by pondering what a cosmological building block should be. He decided that it needed to be able to change and move. It had to be necessary for life, and it had to be something that could be used to create every component of the cosmos. Thales decided that water did meet all of these conditions based on his observations. He was one of the earliest thinkers to investigate natural-world explanations that were not based on the Gods. He became one of the most influential Greek philosophers thanks to this early type of rational reasoning. He established the Milesian School, and his successors taught students such as Pythagoras. Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC)[ – The Father of Mathematics Pythagoras is thought to have been born in 570 BC on the Greek island of Samos, as part of the presocratic thinkers' second generation. Mathematics, according to Pythagoras, provides a harmonic and rational explanation for the universe's workings. He felt that mathematics was the underlying paradigm for philosophy and that its principles governed everything in the universe. In the form of proportions and ratios, he discovered the complex relationships between numbers. Pythagoras studied geometry and made some scientific breakthroughs that would have a long-term impact on architecture and mathematics. He was one of the first ancient Greek philosophers to reach conclusions by deductive reasoning, which marked a significant shift in how thinkers developed theories. Later Greek philosophers such as Plato were affected by Pythagoras' methods. Finally, Pythagoras may have thought his intellectual breakthroughs to be heavenly truths, as the Pythagoreans ascribed spiritual significance to numbers. The Great three: Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) is considered a founding figure in Western philosophy, famed for his unwavering devotion to truth and virtue, extraordinary debate prowess, and martyrdom- like death. As a result of his public philosophising in Athens, the city's democratic government sentenced him to death for "impiety" and "corrupting the youth." He could have saved himself by agreeing to stop philosophising or fleeing to exile, but he refused, preferring instead to consume the poisonous hemlock in deference to the law. Beyond his reputation as a philosophical hero, Socrates is important for reorienting Greek philosophy toward ethical concerns and indeed for insisting that the cultivation of virtue, the “care of the soul,” is overwhelmingly the most important obligation of every human being. He famously asserted at his trial, in defiance of his accusers, that the unexamined life is not worth living. His penetrating style of exploring philosophical questions in conversation, typically exposing contradictions in the positions of his interlocutors, is called the Socratic Method. In defiance of his accusers, he famously stated during his trial that an unexamined life is not worth living. The Socratic method is a deep technique of investigating philosophical topics in conversation, gener ally highlighting contradictions in his interlocutors' perspectives. 28  Socrates didn't write anything.What is known about his beliefs comes from sources such as Plato's e arly dialogues, in which "Socrates" the principal figure in. Socrates believed that virtue is a type of knowledge, and that everyone who understands what virtue is comp elled to act morally. Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) Socrates' student Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) was by far the most bright and accomplished. His ideas were methodical, broad, profound, and incredibly important, laying the groundwork for ancient Neo- Platonism and driving the development of early mediaeval philosophy and Christian theology through that school. Platonic principles impacted the development of 19th-century German idealism and 20th-century process philosophy in following centuries. Plato's impact has been most evident in the philosophy of mathematics since the late nineteenth century, when mathematical Platonism is a well-established tradition with many present adherents. Plato's notion of Forms, which proposed a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless beings underlying the world of common experience, was his most important contribution to philosophy. Plato was a great philosopher as well as a master literary artist, and he is a significant character in the history of Western literature. Plato's impact has been most evident in the philosophy of mathematics since the late nineteenth century, when mathematical Platonism is a well-established tradition with many present adherents. Plato's notion of Forms, which proposed a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless beings underlying the world of common experience, was his most important contribution to philosophy. Plato was a great philosopher as well as a master literary artist, and he is a significant character in the history of Western literature. Plato's philosophical works were written as dialogues, with "Socrates" being the main character and speaker in the majority of them, and Plato himself never appears as a character in any of them. Plato's most renowned work, The Republic, lays forth his vision of a utopic society that is flawlessly governed. It wasn't even close to being a democracy. Farmers and artisans, warriors, and the governing class would naturally divide all residents in his ideal society. Plato's philosophy is the basis of a number of well-known literary motifs and mythologies, such as Platonic love, the philosopher-king, and the Cave metaphor (the world of experience is like a shadow cast on a cave wall by real but unseen objects). Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the third member of the great trio of ancient Greek philosophers after Socrates and Plato, is possibly the most influential thinker who ever lived. He made seminal and groundbreaking contributions to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, moral psychology, political philosophy, and aesthetics, among other fields of philosophy. He established Formal Logic by creating the Syllogistic system of reasoning, which was not supplanted until the mid-nineteenth century. A syllogism is a type of logical argument that consists of three parts: Major Premise: A general statement. Minor Premise: A specific statement related to the major premise. Conclusion: The result that logically follows from the two premises. 29  He was also the world's first true empirical scientist, being the first to differentiate the major scientific subjects (such as biology, botany, chemistry, embryology, physics, and zoology) and to do important theoretical and observational work in each of them. Aristotle's philosophy became the intellectual framework of later Western Scholasticism after his main works were translated into Latin during the 12th century, surpassing (but not erasing) the impact of Neoplatonism as passed down through St. Augustine and the Church Fathers. Following the Scientific Revolution, interest in Aristotle's philosophy's scientific parts waned, and other aspects of his philosophy were only sometimes influential. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, virtue ethics, a self-aware resurrection of Aristotelian Eudaimonism (the theory of well- being), offered an approach to ethics rooted in human nature and devoid of the unexpected consequences of action-based ethical theories. New insights into Aristotle's philosophy continue to emerge from studies of his texts in ethics, metaphysics, and other subjects. Aristotle briefly tutored Macedonian Alexander the Great, the future ruler of the whole Greek world as well as North Africa and the Middle East, when he was 13 years old. Because of his Macedonian ancestry and ties, Aristotle fled Athens after Alexander's death in 323, claiming that he did not want the city that had killed Socrates to "sin twice against philosophy." Aristotle's whole philosophical treatises have all been lost. Lecture notes and draught manuscripts are the only writings attributed to him that have survived. The difficulty of his thinking is increased by their concise and condensed manner. St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224–1274) The greatest of the mediaeval Scholastic philosophers was St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224–74). Aquinas produced a comprehensive system of Christianized Aristotelianism that encompassed metaphysics, logic, cosmology, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of nature, political philosophy, and ethics in response to the rediscovery of Aristotle's philosophy in the West through Latin translations of Aristotle's Greek texts, as did others of his era. While insisting on and even showing, the "new philosophy's" consistency with Christian doctrine, Aquinas famously differentiated philosophy and Theology by their respective starting places. Although both are rational pursuits guided by reason, philosophy begins with general first principles about the world that any reflective person would accept, whereas theology begins with truths about God or the divine revealed in Scripture, which can only be accepted on the basis of religious faith. Aspects of Aquinas' theory were contested by more conventional theologians and were condemned by the church during his lifetime. He was canonized a saint 50 years later, and he was proclaimed a doctor of the church during the Renaissance. In the late 19th century Pope Leo XIII called for a return to Aquinas in the face of modernizing trends in both philosophy and science. Thomism (the philosophy of Aquinas and his later interpreters) became the official philosophy of Roman Catholicism in 1917, following a revision of the Code of Canon Law that required Catholic teachers of philosophy and religion to adopt Aquinas’s methods and principles. Later in the 20th century Thomism represented an important school of thought even outside Catholic philosophy, especially in ethics, the philosophy of law, and political philosophy. Niccolò di Bernardo Dei Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) 30  Niccolò Machiavelli was an important figure during the Renaissance, known for his work as a diplomat, philosopher, and historian. Born in Florence in 1469, he is most famous for his political book, The Prince, written around 1513 but published in 1532. This book is often considered the foundation of modern political theory. Machiavelli argued that politics often involves deception and manipulation, suggesting that rulers might need to use harsh methods, including violence, to maintain power and achieve positive outcomes for their state. Reactions to The Prince have varied widely. Some people view it as a straightforward account of the ruthless tactics used by dictators, while others see it as dangerous advice encouraging tyranny. The term "Machiavellian" has come to describe cunning and deceitful political behavior. Besides The Prince, Machiavelli wrote other works that are less well-known but also significant. His ideas emphasize the importance of pragmatic leadership over traditional moral values, making him a key figure in discussions about power and governance throughout history. Machiavelli's insights continue to influence political thought today. One of the famous quotes in the book is: “Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved.” René Descartes (1596–1650) René Descartes (1596–1650) is known as the father of modern philosophy. He introduced new ideas that changed how people think about science, the mind, and knowledge. Descartes developed a scientific approach based on mechanical principles, which means he viewed the world like a machine that follows specific laws. He also created a new way of understanding the relationship between the mind and the body, known as dualism. This idea suggests that the mind and body are separate but can interact. One of Descartes' most important contributions is his method of systematic doubt. This means he questioned everything that could possibly be false to find what is true. He famously stated, "Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum," or "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am." In his work "Meditations" (1641), he explored concepts of self-awareness, God, and the physical world. Descartes was also a talented mathematician who helped develop analytic geometry, which combines algebra and geometry to solve problems. His ideas influenced many fields, including cognitive science and linguistics in the 20th century. The modern debate about how our minds connect with our physical bodies stems from his dualistic views. Descartes' persecution stemmed from his challenge to established religious beliefs, fear of heresy in a repressive environment, and his cautious approach to publishing ideas that could be seen as controversial or threatening to the Church's authority. Descartes' philosophy questioned traditional views upheld by the Catholic Church and Aristotelian scholasticism. His ideas about doubt, reason, and the nature of existence, pushed against the Church's teachings. This shift towards rationalism and away from faith-based knowledge was seen as a threat by the catholic church in France. To avoid persecution for his beliefs, Descartes spent much of his life in the Netherlands, where he lived a somewhat secretive life, moving frequently to stay under the radar. Overall, Descartes' work laid the foundation for modern science and philosophy. His emphasis on doubt and reason encouraged future thinkers to question established beliefs and seek knowledge through observation and experimentation. By doing so, he helped shape the scientific method we use today, influencing how we understand both the natural world and our own minds. His legacy continues to impact various disciplines, making him a pivotal figure in history. 31  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 –1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a significant philosopher, writer, and composer born in Geneva. His ideas played a crucial role in shaping the Enlightenment across Europe and influenced the French Revolution, as well as modern political, economic, and educational thought. Rousseau believed that the advancements in society led to moral decline rather than improvement. He argued that in the "state of nature," humans possess an "uncorrupted morality. “Rousseau categorized governments into three types: monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He claimed that each type emerged from varying degrees of inequality within society. Over time, these governments tended to create more inequality until revolutions occurred to replace them with new leaders. He maintained that humans have the potential for self-improvement and that many societal problems stem from political choices. By establishing a better political system, he believed it was possible to address these issues. His most famous work, The Social Contract, published in 1762, outlines his vision for a legitimate political order based on classical republicanism. This book is considered one of the foundational texts of Western political theory. Rousseau famously stated, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” highlighting his belief that societal structures often restrict individual freedom. Rousseau’s philosophy also emphasized education and the importance of nurturing a child's natural goodness rather than imposing strict discipline. His book Emile (1762) presents his ideas on education, advocating for a more experiential approach that respects children's emotions and instincts. Throughout his life, Rousseau faced conflicts with other Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot, as well as with authorities in Paris and Switzerland. Despite these challenges, his works have had a lasting impact on philosophy, particularly regarding human nature and the dynamics of society. Rousseau's ideas continue to resonate today, making him a pivotal figure in both Enlightenment thought and modern political philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) For his total transformation of the enterprise of Western philosophy, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is recognized as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and a key philosopher since Aristotle. He transformed the field of philosophy by shifting from the Ptolemaic view, which placed Earth at the center of the universe, to a Copernican perspective that emphasized human reason. His extensive work covered various areas, including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics, and laid the groundwork for modern rationalism and empiricism. Kant's ideas had a lasting impact on Western philosophy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Kant’s central philosophical question focused on the powers and limitations of human reason. He sought to explain how we can have meaningful knowledge in science and morality by connecting these claims to the innate structures of the mind. This approach led to the establishment of Kantianism, a philosophical tradition that continues to thrive today across multiple disciplines. Despite his intellectual achievements, Kant is often criticized for his challenging writing style. His first major work, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), was difficult for many readers, leading to misunderstandings about his ideas. This prompted him to publish a second edition in 1787, which differed from the first and sparked ongoing debates about his original intentions. Kant lived a quiet life in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), where his routine became a subject of interest. It was said that people could set their watches by his daily afternoon walks. At the core of Kant's philosophy is "transcendental idealism," which distinguishes between phenomena (things as we experience them) and noumena (things as they are in themselves). He argued that while we can know the observable world, traditional metaphysical questions about God or free will cannot be fully answered through reason alone. 32 Kant’s ethical framework is built around the "categorical imperative," which states that we should act according to principles that could be universally applied. He emphasized treating individuals with respect and dignity, asserting that morality is rooted in rationality rather than emotions or consequences. This rigorous approach to ethics has significantly influenced moral philosophy and discussions about justice and human rights today. Karl Marx (1818–1883) Karl Marx was a German economist and political theorist known for his revolutionary ideas that significantly impacted philosophy and politics. He is best known for his collaboration with Friedrich Engels after moving to London, where they developed a framework for analyzing class, society, and power dynamics. This framework revealed deep inequalities and the economic reasons behind state-sponsored violence, oppression, and war. Marx believed that the inherent inequalities and conflicts of capitalism would eventually lead to its downfall and the emergence of a socialist system. He envisioned a classless society where everyone would have access to the means of production. His call for a working-class revolution to dismantle an unequal system made Marxism a powerful ideology. The ideas he and Engels proposed spread globally, influencing major political movements in places like Soviet Russia, Eastern Europe, and China. A central concept in Marx's thought is historical materialism, which emphasizes the material conditions of society as the foundation for understanding history. Marx argued that societies evolved through class struggles driven by changes in economic production. He believed that labor is essential for survival and that human beings must work together to meet their needs. This labor creates social relationships that shape society's structure. According to Marx, as productive forces develop, they can conflict with existing social relations, leading to social revolutions. He identified four main modes of production throughout history: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism. Marx predicted that capitalism would ultimately give rise to socialism due to its contradictions, particularly the exploitation of workers, whom he called the proletariat. Despite his profound impact on political thought, Marx's ideas have faced criticism. Some argue that historical materialism oversimplifies complex social dynamics by attributing too much importance to economic factors. Others point to the collapse of communist regimes in the late 20th century as evidence against his theories. Nevertheless, Marx's analysis of class struggle remains influential in discussions about economics and social justice today. Fb riedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1901) was a German philosopher, classicist, and cultural critic whose ideas had a significant impact on various fields, including philosophy, theology, psychology, and literature. Nietzsche is best known for his critiques of traditional Western philosophy, religion, and morality, which profoundly influenced 20th-century thought. His unique writing style—often aphoristic and poetic—helped popularize his ideas, although his fragmented approach sometimes led to misunderstandings. One of Nietzsche's most famous concepts is the "will to power," which he believed was a fundamental driving force in humans. Unfortunately, after his death, his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche misrepresented his work to promote her own nationalist agenda. She portrayed him as a figure supporting German nationalism and anti-Semitism, which he opposed. This distortion was later embraced by the Nazi regime in the 1930s.Nietzsche's early career began as a classical philologist, and he earned a doctorate from the University of Leipzig without needing a dissertation. At just 24 years old, he became a professor at the University of Basel. However, his 33 health declined after he contracted diphtheria and dysentery while serving as a medical orderly during the Franco-German War. His ongoing health issues forced him to retire from teaching in 1879.Nietzsche's philosophy includes several controversial ideas such as "slave morality," the declaration that "God is dead," and the concept of the "Übermensch" or "superman." He argued that traditional moral values were rooted in weakness and that society needed to create new values based on strength and creativity. Despite being misunderstood during his lifetime, Nietzsche's work has gained recognition for its depth and complexity. He emphasized the importance of individual creativity and the need to question established truths. His ideas have inspired existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, as well as modern philosophers such as Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Nietzsche's legacy continues to provoke discussion about morality, culture, and the nature of existence today. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 – 1980) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) was a prominent French philosopher, novelist, and activist known for his significant contributions to existentialism and Marxism. His work emphasized the importance of achieving an authentic existence in a world shaped by oppressive social norms. Sartre's writings emerged during a time when authoritarian regimes, fascism, and Nazism were spreading across Europe, prompting him to engage in socialist resistance against Nazi collaborators in France. After World War II, Sartre focused on anti-colonial movements, particularly supporting the Algerian resistance against French imperialism. Throughout his life, he was a vocal supporter of the Soviet Union and its interpretation of Marxism, although he occasionally criticized human rights abuses within that system. Sartre famously claimed that humans are "condemned to be free," meaning that without a Creator to guide our actions, we bear full responsibility for our choices. Sartre’s existentialist philosophy posits that individuals must confront their freedom and the accompanying ethical responsibilities. He believed that while social conditioning influences our decisions, we still possess the ability to shape our destinies. In his work Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946), Sartre argued that individuals should embrace their freedom and act authentically. In Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960), Sartre sought to reconcile existentialism with Marxism. He argued for a dialectical relationship between individual agency and historical context, suggesting that while individuals are shaped by their social realities, they also have the power to influence those realities. This perspective emphasizes that personal freedom is interconnected with societal liberation. Sartre’s philosophical journey reflects a shift from early existentialist ideas to a more engaged political stance. He became increasingly involved in social issues, advocating for national liberation movements in Algeria and Vietnam. Despite his commitment to Marxism, some critics argue that his approach lacked the empirical economic analysis central to traditional Marxist thought. Overall, Sartre's legacy lies in his ability to blend existentialist ideas with political activism, emphasizing the importance of individual freedom while recognizing the impact of social structures. His work continues to inspire discussions about identity, responsibility, and the nature of human existence in contemporary philosophy. Michel Foucault, (1926- 1984) Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French historian, social theorist, and philosopher known for his extensive analysis of power and knowledge and their relationship to social control. Although 34 often labeled a postmodernist, Foucault was critical of modernist ideas. His background as a French diplomat shaped his understanding of social structures and how they have historically enforced inequalities based on race, religion, and gender. Foucault’s work has significantly influenced movements for social justice, human rights, and feminism. He actively participated in campaigns against racism, human rights abuses, and the mistreatment of prisoners, as well as advocating for the rights of the mentally ill. His research into power dynamics has impacted various fields, including sociology, communications, and political science. Central to Foucault's philosophy is the idea that power is everywhere and comes from various sources. He argued that power is not just held by individuals or institutions but is woven into the fabric of society itself. Foucault emphasized that knowledge is inherently linked to power; he coined the term "power/knowledge" to illustrate how knowledge can both shape and reinforce power structures. In this view, knowledge is not neutral; it can be used to control and regulate behavior. Foucault also examined how social constructs should be scrutinized for hierarchical inequalities. He believed that oppressed individuals have a right to fight against abuses of power to protect their rights. His concept of "bio-power" refers to the ways in which societies regulate populations through various institutions such as schools, prisons, and hospitals. These institutions use surveillance and discipline to shape behavior and maintain social order. Foucault’s analysis encourages a critical examination of accepted truths and norms in society. He argued that individuals are not merely repressed by social structures; rather, they are shaped by them. This perspective highlights the importance of understanding how power operates in everyday life and influences our identities and behaviors. Overall, Foucault’s work provides valuable insights into the dynamics of power and knowledge, urging us to question societal norms and consider how they affect individual freedoms and rights. His ideas continue to resonate in discussions about social justice and human rights today. 35