Knowing The Truth (2nd Qtr) PDF

KNOWING THE TRUTH NECESSARY TRUTH BEARERS OF TRUTH Is true in all possible situations (A guide to k...

KNOWING THE TRUTH NECESSARY TRUTH BEARERS OF TRUTH Is true in all possible situations (A guide to know the truth) Analytic truth are necessary truth Example: Bicycle has 2 wheels 1. Belief Are mental expressions of our claims. PRIVATE The difference between a statement and a belief is that the statement Can only be known directly by the person who has the belief or make the is expressed linguistically while the belief is made in the mind statement considered to be true 2. Statement Physiological or mental statement Also called a “preposition” Example: I feel great pain when I slipped on the floor. Refers to a linguistic expression whose function is to advance a certain claim PUBLIC 3. Sentences Can be known directly by everyone. Only declarative sentences can be true because a question, an Example: Everyone saw that a person slipped on the floor exclamation, or an imperative sentence can be either true or false. For this reason, we can only consider statement and belief as the SUBJECTIVE TRUTH bearers of truth Is dependent on the attitudes, preferences, or interests of a person or a group of persons. KINDS OF TRUTH Example: Britney Spears is the best pop rock icon ever lived EMPIRICAL TRUTH It is described as posteriori, which means it can only be known after some OBJECTIVE TRUTH relevant experience Is based on factual judgement Example: it is raining Example: Britney Spears is one the pop rock icon in the music industry RATIONAL TRUTH RELATIVE TRUTH It is technology described as a priori, which means that it can be known before Acknowledged only by some people some relevant experience Subjective truth are relative truth Example: Five plus five are ten Example: Britney Spears is the best pop rock icon SYNTHETIC TRUTH UNIVERSAL TRUTH Extends our knowledge (Truths can be changed) Acknowledged by everyone Example: The table is brown Objective truth are universal truth Example: Britney Spears is one the pop rock icon in the music industry ANALYTIC TRUTH There is no extension of knowledge that happens (truths cannot be changed) CERTAIN TRUTH Example: Bicycle has 2 wheels Arrived through the process of deductive reasoning Example: CONTINGENT TRUTH All humans are mortal Is not true in all possible situations Pedro is a human Synthetic truth are contingent truth Pedro is mortal Example: The table is brown PROBABLE TRUTH MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE - It is usually dealing with spiritual and religious Arrived through the process of inductive reasoning ○ Example: Example: Receiving messages and instructions from God Most Filipino are hospitable APPEAL TO AUTHORITY - It is an information provided by an expert, and reliable Juan is Filipino documents Juan is hospitable ○ Example: Testimony of dentist endorsing a toothpaste product DISCIPLINAL TRUTH It is an area of study does the topic or content of a belief or a statement that is QUESTIONS OF TRUTH AND OPINION held to be true falls Examples: religious truth, scientific truth, psychological truth, biological truth, CORRESPONDENCE THEORY economic truth, and political truth Oldest Model (traced back to Plato and Aristotle) A statement is true id it correspondence with reality WAYS OF KNOWING GENERAL METHODS OF TRUTH GEOCENTRIC VIEW CORRESPONDENCE - Statement/belief is true by examining if it does correspond If someone claims, “The earth is flat”, the truth of this claim to, or represents, a fact in the world. Example: The geocentric view, or geocentrism, is the astronomical theory that ○ Examples: positions the Earth at the center of the universe, with all celestial bodies-such as Water is liquid the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars-revolving around it. This model was widely Oceans are blue accepted in ancient and medieval times, notably championed by philosophers Math uses numbers like Aristotle and later formalized by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. COHERENCE - Statement/belief is true by examining if it does cohere with the Application: If someone claims, "The earth is flat," the truth of this claim can be rules of the relevant system. verified by observing reality (eg. satellite images, scientific measurements). ○ Example: 3 + 3 is 6 PHILOSOPHERS AND LANGUAGE PRAGMATISM / PRAGMATIC - Statement/belief is true by examining if holding or Bertrand Russell accepting it will result in beneficial consequences. ○ Principia Mathematica (co-authored with Alfred Whitehead) ○ Example: ○ A monumental work in mathematical logic, aiming to show how The belief in the existence of supernatural elements is useful mathematics can be derived from logical foundations. to explain unusual phenomena and dealing with fears. ○ Philosophical focus: Russell applied logical analysis to language and thought. He argued that many philosophical problems arise from PARTICULAR METHODS OF TRUTH misunderstandings of language. OBSERVATION - It can be internal (using our thoughts and feelings) or external ○ Example: Russell's famous "Theory of Descriptions" helps clarify (using our 5 senses) statements like, "The present King of France is bald." Since France has ○ Example: no king, the sentence's structure is misleading, and Russell's logic Observing how dogs responds to the sound of thunder resolves the ambiguity. REASONING - It is the process of knowing the truth by means of our reason Alfred North Whitehead INTUITION - It is a direct access to the truth that bypasses the processes of ○ Process and Reality observation and reasoning. ○ Whitehead's process philosophy proposes that reality is not made up ○ Example: of static entities but is a constant process of becoming Decision-making about our moral duties ○ Example: The Principle of Relativity  Whitehead critiques Einstein's theory of relativity by Essence of objects - The goal of phenomenology is to uncover the true essence proposing an alternative model that includes a more flexible of objects of experiences, going beyond surface level understanding to grasp understanding of space and time. their deeper meaning Contribution to Philosophy: Focused on how we understand events and change Husserl’s key concepts rather than fixed objects, which ties into the nature of truth as dynamic rather ○ NOEMA: The object as it is perceived (the concept of thought) than static. ○ NOESIS: The act of perceiving that objects (the process of thinking) Ludwig Wittgeinstein ○ Tractatus Logico-philosophicus EXISTENTIALISM Explores the limits of relationship between and relationship Jean-Paul Sartre between languages , thought, and reality. ○ A prominent existentialist, argues that existence precedes essence ○ Philosophical investigations: Subjectivity: It emphasizes subjectivity, meaning that individuals create their Introduces the concept of language-games own meaning and are responsible for it ○ Philosophical focus: He argued that the meaning of words depends on Human freedom and responsibility: Existentialism stresses the freedom of their use in language. This contrasts with the idea that word have fixed individuals to create meaning in their lives and the responsibility that comes with meanings that freedom ○ Example: In his theory of language-games, Wittgenstein explained that Relation to phenomenology: Existentialism builds on phenomenology by the meaning of the word "game" is not tied to a single, unchanging focusing not just on what we experience but how those experiences shape our definition but to the way it's used in different contexts (e.g., sport existence games vs board games) Existential phenomenology ○ Merges the two ideas, suggesting that we not only investigate the LOGICAL POSITIVISM essence of experiences (phenomenology) but also understand how Philosophers like A.J AYER applied verification theory: stating that a statement is these experiences relate to our being (existentialism) only meaningful if it can be empirically verified (proven true or false through ○ Maurice merleau-ponty’s contribution: He emphasized the importance observation or experiment). of the body in experience, arguing that our physical bodies affect how Example: we think and interpret the world. ○ "Unicorn Exist" is meaningful if we can test it by searching for evidence of unicorns, but metaphysical claims. HUMAN PERSON (e.g., "The soul is eternal") are meaningless because they MAN - It is a general term which is commonly used to refer to the human race cannot be verified. HUMAN - refers to a man as species (homo sapiens sapiens) PERSON - A much more complex term that generally refers to a human being granted PHENOMENOLOGY recognition of certain rights, protections, and responsibilities Founded by Edmund Husserl Is the study of how things appear to us in our “consciousness is always TWO GENERAL KINDS consciousness of something” — meaning that our thoughts are always directed 1. METAPHYSICAL APPROACH - kinds of substances or materials and capacities toward an object of idea that uniquely make up a human person. Objective vs. Subjective Martin Heidegger (german philosopher during 20th century) ○ OBJECTIVITY: The scientific detached approach that looks at parts of “What is the human person?” an object to under it ○ SUBJECTIVITY: Involvement of the thinker in the thought 2. EXISTENTIAL APPROACH - kind of life, or mode of existence , that is unique to process—one cannot fully separate from what they are thinking about human person Identity of human (how it feels, how it interact to the other people, and living things)  “Who is the human person?” 3. EMBODIED SPIRIT VIEW - human person is just essentially the unity of his/her WHAT DOES THE HUMAN PERSON COMPOSED OF? body and spirit. In short, body and spirit cannot exist independently of one BODY - outer features of human person another. In other words, if the body dies the spirit will not also survive NON-BODILY COMPONENTS - inner features of human person Supporters: ○ SOUL EMPHASIZES THE LIFE GIVING FUNCTION ○ Aristotle ○ MIND EMPHASIZES THE CONSCIOUSNESS ○ Everything that exists is composed of matter and form, and ○ SPIRIT EMPHASIZES ITS NON-BODILY, NON-BIOLOGICAL, OR matter and form are indeed inseparable. (form-non-physical; NON-PHYSICAL NATURE - Spirit is used as general term to refer to matter-physical) non-bodily component of human person ○ St. Thomas Aquinas He believes that human soul is “subsistent” rather WHAT ESSENTIALLY MAKES UP A HUMAN PERSON? than “substance” 1. UNSPIRITED BODY VIEW - Human person is essentially just his/her body and He agrees with Aristotle that living things have their nothing more. In short, it doesn’t believe in non-bodily components of the respective souls but vegetative and sensitive souls human person. The only component is BODY alone. are mortal while rational souls are immortal Supporters: because rational ability is to think not dependent on ○ Mind-brain identity theory - wherein it claims that what we the body. call “mind” are nothing but the brain “mental states” are He also claims that there are unity between soul nothing but the neural states of the brain and body even though the soul survive after the ○ Behaviorism theory - claims that what we call mental states dead of the body, is no longer a person, that is why simply refer to one’s inclination to show certain behavior. he called human soul “subsistent” Example: To remove the pain that cause you cry, you need to remove the source of it and other 3 RESPECTIVE SOULS factors ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE 2. DISEMBODIED SPIRIT VIEW - Human person is essentially just his/her spirit and 1. Vegetative or nutritive soul nothing more. Function: Intake and absorption of nutrients, growth, towards Supporters: maturity, the generation of progeny and the engagement in behaviors ○ Plato primitive of the survival of the growing, maturing, breeding life-form He called the non-bodily component as “soul” and its progeny Immortality of the soul 2. Sensitive soul ○ Rene Descartes Function: Nourishment, growth, reproduction,sensation, locomotion He called the non-bodily component as “mind” 3. Rational soul “I think therefore I am” Function: Nourishment, growth, reproduction,sensation, locomotion, He believed that there are 2 type of substance intelligence or rational thinking, freedom or freewill 1. Mind - non-physical 2. Matter - physical WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES Substance dualism - the body are two different kinds of entities or OF THE HUMAN MIND? substances (the body-physical; spirit (soul & mind) - non-physical) FIVE MAJOR PROPERTIES OF THE MIND OR MENTAL STATES “It is doubtful that human being have body in the physical world, but it is not doubtful that 1. Consciousness (most fundamental) - ordinarily identified with awareness we have mind” Cognition - knowing, believing or understanding, thinking  Emotion - envy, anger, fear, or joy ○ Example: Russell's famous "Theory of Descriptions" helps Sensation - pains, tickles, itches clarify statements like, "The present King of France is bald." Perception - hearing, seeing, touching, tastong, smelling Since France has no king, the sentence's structure is Quasi-perception - hallucination, dreaming, imagining misleading, and Russell's logic resolves the ambiguity. Conations - acting, trying, wanting, intending Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947): 2. Subjective Quality - particular way that an individual person is conscious of ○ Key Work: Process and Reality - Whitehead's process his/her own mental states or undergoes his/her own experiences philosophy proposes that reality is not made up of static 3. Intentionality - it is the process of mental states to be about something or to be entities but is a constant process of becoming. directed at some objects or events in the world. ○ Example: In The Principle of Relativity, Whitehead critiques Example: Believe of existing of God Einstein's theory of relativity by proposing an alternative 4. Ontological Subjectivity - it is the property of mental states to be exist only model that includes a more flexible understanding of space insofar as there is a subject who has them or who experience them and time. Example: You feel hurt because there are certain entities that you ○ Contribution to Philosophy: Focused on how we understand experience events and change rather than fixed objects, which ties into 5. Privacy - it is the property of mental states to be directly known only by the the nature of truth as dynamic rather than static. subject or person who has them. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951): Example: Having headache (only the person who experience headache ○ Key Works: 1) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: Explores the can known directly as headache) limits of language and the relationship between language, thought, and reality, and 2) Philosophical Investigations: Below are the notes made by ma’am Mona. Introduces the concept of language-games. ○ Philosophical Focus: Wittgenstein argued that the meaning Lesson 6: Questions of Truth and Opinion of words depends on their use in language. This contrasts Models of Truth with the idea that words have fixed meanings. A. Correspondence Theory: ○ Example: In his theory of language-games, Wittgenstein Oldest model (traced back to Plato and Aristotle). explained that the meaning of the word "game" is not tied to A statement is true if it corresponds with reality. a single, unchanging definition but to the way it's used in Example: Geocentric view (earth as the center of the solar system) was different contexts (e.g., sports games vs. board games). The widely accepted until it was disproved by Copernicus, Galileo, and meaning comes from the social activity surrounding the Kepler, who provided evidence through scientific methods, leading to word. the heliocentric model. C. Logical Positivism Application: If someone claims, "The Earth is flat," the truth of this Philosophers like A.J. Ayer applied verification theory, stating that a claim can be verified by observing reality (e.g., satellite images, statement is only meaningful if it can be empirically verified (proven scientific measurements). true or false through observation or experiment). B. Philosophers and Language: Example: A statement like "Unicorns exist" is meaningful if we can test Bertrand Russell (1872-1970): it by searching for evidence of unicorns, but metaphysical claims (e.g., ○ Key Work: Principia Mathematica (co-authored with Alfred "The soul is eternal") are meaningless because they cannot be verified. Whitehead). D. Phenomenology ○ A monumental work in mathematical logic, aiming to show Main Idea: Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, is the study how mathematics can be derived from logical foundations. of how things appear to us in our consciousness. Its core principle is ○ Philosophical Focus: Russell applied logical analysis to that "consciousness is always consciousness of something"-meaning language and thought. He argued that many philosophical that our thoughts are always directed toward an object or idea. problems arise from misunderstandings of language. Objective vs. Subjective: Phenomenology differentiates between:  ○ Objectivity: The scientific, detached approach that looks at responsibility that comes with that freedom. Each person is tasked parts of an object to understand it. with making choices that define their existence. ○ Subjectivity: Involvement of the thinker in the thought Relation to Phenomenology: Existentialism builds on phenomenology process-one cannot fully separate from what they are by focusing not just on what we experience but how those thinking about. experiences shape our existence. It adds a personal, subjective ○ Essence of Objects: The goal of phenomenology is to uncover dimension to understanding experiences, emphasizing how individuals the true essence of objects or experiences, going beyond interact with and interpret the world. surface-level understanding to grasp their deeper meaning. Existential Phenomenology ○ Husserl's Key Concepts: Noesis and Noema ○ Existential phenomenology merges the two ideas, ○ In every act of consciousness, there is: suggesting that we not only investigate the essence of Noema: The object as it is perceived (the content of experiences (phenomenology) but also understand how thought). these experiences relate to our being (existentialism). Noesis: The act of perceiving that object (the ○ Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Contribution: He emphasized the process of thinking). importance of the body in experience, arguing that our Method: Husserl's phenomenology encourages physical bodies affect how we think and interpret the world. rigorous reflection on our experiences to grasp the For example, a hungry body influences the mind's ability to essence of things. It suggests we return to the process and think clearly, linking physical experiences with basics of how things appear to us without mental processes. preconceived notions ("back to the things Practical Example: Simple truths like 1+1=2 are objectively correct, but themselves"). existentialists would ask, what does this knowledge mean to me as a ○ Natural vs. Transcendental Attitude: person? They emphasize that knowledge must be personally Natural Attitude: When we accept things as they meaningful, not just factually correct. are without questioning their deeper meaning. Significance of the Body: In existential phenomenology, the body is Transcendental Attitude: When we intentionally not just an object, but part of our existence that shapes our direct our consciousness to investigate the essence experiences. Philosophers like Merleau-Ponty remind us that bodily of things, questioning what they truly mean beyond experiences are deeply tied to our thoughts and perceptions. everyday understanding. Example: In phenomenology, common experiences Lesson 7: Schools of Thought as Useful Ladders like attending a funeral are investigated beyond A. Hermeneutical Role in Philosophy cultural habits (e.g., offering food) to ask deeper Philosophical reflection involves analysis, interpretation, and questions about their meaning. communication, emphasizing how thought and language are E. Existentialism connected. Main Idea: Jean-Paul Sartre, a prominent existentialist, argues that Language is complex, so philosophers use hermeneutics—the theory existence precedes essence. This means that we exist first, and and methodology of interpretation-to help in understanding and through our actions, we create meaning for ourselves. interpreting texts. Subjectivity: Existentialism emphasizes subjectivity, meaning that Philosophers play the role of a hermeneutic, an interpreter, whenever individuals create their own meaning and are responsible for it. This interpretation (implied or explicit) is required. contrasts with objective truths, which are universally accepted The term "hermeneutics" traces back to Hermes, the mythical regardless of personal feelings. messenger god, symbolizing the importance of clear message delivery. Human Freedom and Responsibility: Existentialism stresses the freedom of individuals to create meaning in their lives and the  Jürgen Habermas is a key figure in modern hermeneutics. His theory 2. Reduction: Identify the essence or core meaning of the highlights: phenomenon in consciousness. 1. Hermeneutics is about making communication a. Example: Holding a cup of coffee - Look deeper to understandable. find the core meaning of the experience. Is it about 2. It helps in making decisions on practical questions. comfort, relaxation, or enjoying a routine? 3. It aims at convincing and persuading through understanding Phenomenology looks for essences-fundamental meanings-of phenomena, and explication. focusing not just on physical attributes but on the subjective experience. Habermas' theory is closely tied to his concept of communicative Existential phenomenology integrates personal involvement in experiences, action, focusing on rational discourse in the public sphere. recognizing that the subject is never detached from the phenomena they A proper hermeneutical approach ensures rationality, democratic perceive. participation, and cooperation in discussions, fostering a shared lifeworld. Lesson 1 Discovering the Self: Who Am I? A. A Human Being's Understanding of Himself/Herself B. Philosophical Analysis 1. Human Nature and Existence: Humans question the world, their Philosophical analysis involves examining language and logical existence, and purpose. structures to clarify thought, focusing on precise, clear, and rigorous ○ Confronted with "Who am I?", a fundamental, complex argumentation. question about self-being. Bertrand Russell and George Edward Moore are considered founders ○ Rizal: Reason enables humans to wonder about existence of the analytic tradition in philosophy. and self. The method involves breaking down statements into their logical ○ Kant and Jaspers: Humans, with autonomy and a components to test their truth or falsehood. For example, The self-regulating will, still struggle to answer this question with statement "Men are cheaters" must be analyzed based on whether it certainty refers to all men or just some men. Words must be carefully defined to 2. Difficulties in Answering "Who Am I?": avoid misunderstanding (e.g.,"some" vs. "all'"). ○ Though seemingly simple, "Who am I?" is challenging to Clarity in language is crucial to avoid errors in thought and answer due to the uniqueness of individual experiences. communication. ○ Humans cannot fully define themselves through any fixed C. Phenomenological-Existential Method schema, as their being transcends formulas and categories. Combines phenomenology (Husserl's method) and existentialism ○ Jaspers: Human essence extends beyond what one knows (Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, Marcel). about oneself, leading them to delve deeper beyond the Phenomenology involves bracketing (suspending) preconceived superficial. notions to focus purely on the phenomena. 3. Ordinary Questions as Catalysts: 1. Epoche: Suspend typical assumptions or biases about the ○ Everyday questions may seem trivial but invite deeper object or experience, allowing for a fresh and unbiased contemplation on life's purpose, such as: perspective. Why live if death is inevitable? a. Example: Notice the warmth of the cup, the What is true love? texture, and the smell of the coffee instead of ○ Although life often proceeds without addressing these thinking about where it came from, where you deeply, moments of pause may prompt serious reflection. bought it, or its brand. This allows you to B. Human Being's Encounter with Existential Limit Situations experience it with a fresh perspective, free from 1. Boundary Situations: preconceptions. a. Karl Jaspers: Humans face unavoidable situations (e.g., death, suffering, conflict) that disrupt ordinary life.  b. These boundary situations push individuals to reconsider Aquinas "Who am I?" with greater depth and consciousness. a. Built on Aristotle's ideas but introduced a theological 2. Deeper Self-Reflection and Questioning: perspective. a. Such situations reveal personal limitations and provoke b. Unity of Body and Soul: Like Aristotle, he sees the soul as the fundamental questions: form of the body, creating one integrated being. i. Why me? c. Soul as Immortal: Unlike Aristotle, Aquinas argues the soul is ii. What is the purpose of my struggles? rational and spiritual, thus immortal. b. These questions redefine self-understanding as they push d. Embodied Soul: Complete human nature requires both body beyond surface-level existence, leading to existential and soul; the soul awaits eventual reunion with a resurrected inquiries about life's meaning. body. 3. Continuous Self-Discovery: C. Human Consciousness and Existence a. The act of questioning becomes self-reflective, where one Nature of Consciousness: Human consciousness reflects thought and not only questions but becomes the question. self-awareness that go beyond physical experiences. b. Each answer reveals more questions, fueling an ongoing Philosophers' Views: search for existential understanding and self-knowledge. a. John Locke: Introduced the idea of consciousness as a criterion for personal identity, where selfhood is based on Lesson 2 Exploring "Who Am I?" Throughout History awareness of thoughts and sensations. A. Duality of Body and Soul b. Kant and Existentialists: Explored self-consciousness, Dualism separates the human being into two parts: the body (physical) recognizing "I" as a rational, responsible agent and a source and the soul (non-material, often equated with the mind). of existential reflection on life and mortality. Homeric Influence: Ancient views, such as those in Homeric poems, D. Human Faculty of Reason reflect dualism, associating the soul with courage and the mind Reason and Rationality: Human beings possess reason, enabling Philosophical Perspectives: reflection, comparison, and decision-making. a. Plato: Believed the soul pre-exists the body, existing in the Philosophical Debate realm of eternal "Forms" or ideals. The soul is immortal, and 1. Rationalists: Seek truth through mental reasoning alone. knowledge is a form of recollection. 2. Empiricists: Value observation and sense-based knowledge. b. Descartes: Argued that the mind is distinct from the body, 3. Skeptics: Question the scope of rationality, suggesting defining himself as a "thinking being." He saw thought, reason is often influenced by emotions and external factors. doubt, and reasoning as proofs of Importance of Reason: Enables humans to endure and find meaning in Modern Challenges: Dualism faces issues like the mind-body life, setting them apart from other beings. problem-how mental states interact with the physical brain. B. Unity of Body and Soul (Monism) Lesson 3 The Body and Human Existence Monism claims the body and soul are one entity. The human being is A. The Relation of "I" and the Body seen as a unified whole rather than separate parts. Conscious Connection: Humans realize their limitations through their a. Proposed hylomorphism: every living being is a unity of connection with their bodies, which allows them to think, feel, and act. matter (hyle) and form (morphe). Primary Reflection: Initially, the body can be viewed as a separate b. Body is the physical matter, and soul is the form that object, similar to other external things, which can lead to treating it as animates it, making them inseparable in life. an instrument. c. Soul gives purpose and function to the body, meaning the Secondary Reflection: On a deeper level, the body is seen as soul doesn't survive after bodily death (no belief in intertwined with one's subjectivity and identity, revealing the self and immortality). affirming individuality. B. "I Have My Body" Possession and Responsibility: Saying "I have my body" implies Good luck! ownership, entailing responsibility and care rather than mere manipulation. Philippians 4:13 Unique Claim: No one else can possess one's body, underscoring a “I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.” unique, inseparable relationship. C. "I Am My Body" Unity of Self and Body: The body is not just an instrument; it is part of the self. Activities are not merely actions of the body but expressions of the self. In-Fleshing of I': The body reveals one's thoughts, emotions, and personal truth. D. Transcendence and My Body Encountering Others: Through the body, one connects with other subjectivities and experiences, including Transcendence (higher realities). Body as Mediator: In relationships with others and in seeking greater truths, the body serves as an intermediary, facilitating genuine connections. E. Self and the World Existential Presence: The body is how one engages with and affects the world, embodying values, beliefs, and identity. Concealment and Withdrawal: One can choose to engage or withdraw from the world through the body, controlling interactions with the external environment. Lesson 4 Finitude and Historicity of Human Being Humans experience their limitations and historical existence, which, though finite, contribute to their authentic being. A. Human Being in Time Presence in Time and Place: Human existence is marked by a concrete presence within specific moments and places, connecting past, present, and future. Temporal Continuity: Decisions and experiences shape each time dimension, influencing future choices and reflecting past influences. B. Historicity of Human Being Integrating Time: Humans hold memories of the past, engage in the present, and anticipate the future, forming a continuum that shapes identity and purpose. ——END——