PHG 212 Handout Fall 2024 PDF

Faculty of Pharmacy Pharmacognosy Department PHG 212 Handout  Contents Chapters Topics Page no.  Chapter 1  Subterranean organs: 1...

Faculty of Pharmacy Pharmacognosy Department PHG 212 Handout  Contents Chapters Topics Page no.  Chapter 1  Subterranean organs: 1-4  Introduction.  Drugs: 1. Ginger. 5-8 2. Turmeric. 9-10 3. Garlic. 11 4. Colchicum. 12 5. Ipecacuanha. 13 6. Krameria. 14 7. Rhubarb. 15-19 8. Valerian. 20 9. White Squill. 21-22 10. Liquorice. 23-27 11. Dioscorea. 28-29 12. Senega. 30 13. Echinacea. 31 14. Jalap. 32  Chapter 2  Bark:  Introduction. 33-38  Drugs: 1. Cascara & 2. Frangula. 39-41 3. Quillaia. 42 4. Wild cherry. 43 5. Hamamelis. 44 6. Cinchona. 45-49 7. Pomegranate. 50-51 8. Cinnamon, 9. Cassia & 10. Canella. 52-57  Chapter 3  Wood:  Introduction. 58-59  Drugs: 1. Quassia. 60-62 2. Guaiacum. 63 3. Sandalwood. 64  Chapter 4  Unorganized Drugs:  Introduction. 65  Drugs: (Plant Origin) 1. Gum Acacia & 2. Gum Tragacanth. 65-67 3. Colophony. 68 4. Myrrh. 69 5. Aloe. 70-71 6. Agar. 72 7. Opium. 73-74  Drugs: (Animal Origin) 1. Cantharides & 2. Cochineal 75 3. Ambergris & 4. Musk. 75 5. Gelatin. 76 6. Beeswax. 76  Chapter 5  Pharmacognostical features. 77  Application of Botany & Medicinal Plants. 77-78  Chapter 1 Subterranean organs Introduction  Introduction to subterranean organs Include the following: Including rhizomes, corms, stem tubers and bulbs. Including roots and root tubers. Functions of the subterranean organs: 1. They provide an anchor in the ground or any other substrate and thus allows the development of the plant's above-ground organs (anchorage). 2. They are the main organ for the uptake of water and inorganic nutrients (absorption and conduction). 3. They often serve to store surplus energy, generally in the form of polysaccharides such as starchand inulin (storage). 4. Subterranean organs are devoid of chlorophyll.  The subterranean stems are characterized externally by: 1. Bearing scale leaves, axillary buds, adventitious roots and having a growing point protected by scale leaves forming their terminal bud, while the root is characterized by the presence of root cap.  The subterranean stems are characterized Internally by: 1. Having no central solid mass of xylem but the dicotyledons plants have a parenchymatous pith. Types of subterranean stems: 1. Rhizome:  Rhizome is the most important member of this group as regards to their medicinal value.  Rhizome is an underground stem with nodes and internodes, terminal buds, axillary buds covered by scaly leaves and carrying aerial shoots upwards and adventitious roots downwards. 1  The internodes are either long as in American podophyllum or short as in Indian podophyllum. Rhizomes occur on the market in the following condition a. Entire form. b. In broken pieces as in ginger etc. c. In longitudinal slices or transverse slices as in squill, colchicum. d. Partially or wholly decorticated as in ginger, rhubarb etc. 2. Corm:  Corm is a short swollen erect underground stem, covered with brown scale leaves arising at the nodes, and having usually a large apical bud and small axillary ones.  Daughter corm is protected below the large apical bud, being situated above the parent corm as in Colocasia, or below on the sidebuds as in Colchicum. 3. Stem tuber:  It is a swollen underground stem or part of stem, usually its tip.  It differs from root tuber in bearing several small scales and buds forming sometimes what is called eyes, as well as terminal bud on the free end as in Potato.  It characterized by the absence of rootlets. 4. Bulb:  Bulb in a type underground stem, reduced to a small, flattened disc and crowned with crowded fleshy scale leaves or scale leaf bases and having adventitious roots arising from the base of the bulb. Types of bulb may be: a) Scaly bulb (imbricate bulb), in which the fleshy scales nearly overlap at their margins. i. e. The outer scales are not encircling the inner ones. b) Tunicated bulb, in which the outer scales are completely sheathing the inner portion of the bulb. 2   Definition: The root is that portion of the plant axis, which in seedling, grows vertically downwards into the soil away from light.  The subterranean roots are characterized externally by:  They do not show nodes and internodes and do not bear leaves or buds.  Their growing point are covered by a special tissue (root-cap or calyptra).  Root bears only one kind of lateral appendages (rootlets) i.e. branches which are similar in charactersand in structure to the main root.  The subterranean roots are characterized Internally by:  Having central solid mass of xylem and absence of pith. The root can be divided into four zones: 1) Zone of cell division (Growing point):  About one millimeter long.  Covered by the root cap which is usually darker in color, slimy and lubricant, helping the root to penetrate inside the soil. 2) Zone of elongation:  Behind the growing point  Smooth and free of any outgrowths  In this zone the increase in length of the root takes places  Cells lengthen, no division. 3) Zone of absorption (Zone of Maturation or Zone of root hairs):  Root hairs increase the surface area of the root that sets in soil to help absorb more water and minerals. (Absorbing parts of the root) 4) Zone of differentiation (the lateral branches or lateral roots):  This zone occupies or constitute the majority of the root. 3  There are several types of roots as: 1) Primary roots: Developing into taproots as in senega, belladonna, althea. 2) Secondary roots: Lateral roots as in krameria. 3) Adventitious roots: Arise from the stem as in ipecacuanha, Jalap. 4) Storage roots: Of any of the previously mentioned types, which become swollen with reserve food materials. e.g. carrot.. Comparison between subterranean stems & roots. P.O.C Subterranean stems Subterranean Roots 1. Definition These are stems grow under the ground The root is that portion of the plant axis, which in seedling, grows vertically downwards into the soil away from light. 2. Morphology ☺ leaves Showed scale leaves (no chlorophyll) No leaves ☺ buds Axillary buds No buds ☺ Adventitious roots Carry Adventitious roots No Adventitious roots ☺ nodes & internodes Showed nodes & internodes No nodes & internodes 3. Growing point Covered by scale leaves forming apical Covered by root cap or calyptra bud (terminal bud) on the free end 4. Rootlets Absence of rootlets (to differentiate Branches are similar in structure but between root and stem-tubers) thinner (rootlets) 5. Vascular Bundle V.B. in the form of single ring around V.B. are radial, alternating groups of the pith. phloem and xylem. (Young roots) 6. Internally No central solid mass of xylem central solid mass of xylem 7. Pith Presence of central pith No central pith, the central part is occupied by xylem 8. Types 1. Rhizomes 2. Corm 1. 1ry roots 2. 2nd roots 3. Stem tubers 4. Bulb 3. Adventitious roots 4. Storage roots 4  Chapter 1 Subterranean organs Drugs  1. Ginger  Origin: The dried rhizomes of Zingiber Officinalis, Family Zingiberaceae, are deprived of the dark outer tissues and known as unbleached Ginger. Ginger has a: 1. Pungent 2. Slightly lemony taste  Active constituents: 1. Oleoresin (Volatile oil is attached with resin): The main components of volatile oil are: 1. Zingiberene responsible for aromatic odor. 2. Gingerol (zingiberol), phenolic constituent responsible for pungent taste. 3. Shogaol (dehydrated Gingerol), formed on drying the plant, it is acidic and strongly irritant (appears on bad storing). 2. Starch: up to 50%.  Confirmatory Chemical Test: 1. Boiling powder with KOH the pungency of Ginger due to presence of gingerol is destroyed.  Medicinal Uses: 1. Antiaging. 2. Antiemetic: Ginger is highly effective for motion sickness. It is more effective than other medicines in relieving postoperative nausea. (It doesn’t cause sleep effect as antihistaminic drugs; it produces a direct effect on GIT, with no effects on CNS). 3. Antiseptic: Used in the treatment of bacillary dysentery. 4. Used in digestive problems: Carminative and relieves motion sickness and morning sickness. 5. Circulatory stimulant: It stimulates the circulation, used in combination with Cinnamon in case of Chilblains. It increases sweating so it reduces body temperature in fevers. 6. In Respiratory conditions: Ginger is warming and soothing for coughs, colds, flu, and other respiratory problems. 7. Anti-inflammatory. 5  Contraindications:  It should not be taken during pregnancy, since it causes muscle contraction & abortion may occur if administrated internally.  But it is safe to use gingerol as aromatherapy during pregnancy as antiemetic drug.  Key Elements: 1. Scitaminaceous starch 2. Oleo-resin cells (Characteristic for Ginger) 3. Septate fiber (Characteristic for Ginger) 6 7   Adulteration: Adulteration of Ginger could take several forms: 1. Exhausted Ginger: Exhaustion of its oil content (less % of V.O.). 2. Adulteration by sophistication: Addition of wheat flour to the powdered Ginger with enough Capsicum to restore the pungency, and enough Curcuma to restore the color. How can we predict the adulterated ginger from the authentic ginger? P.O.C The authentic ginger The adulterated ginger A/C Gingerol (zingiberol) Capsaicin (Pungent principle) Confirmatory Boiling powder with KOH will Boiling powder with KMnO4 will chemical tests destroy the pungency of destroy the pungency of authentic ginger due to adulterated ginger due to presence of gingerol. presence of capsaicin. Key elements 1. Oleo-resin cells 1. Seed coat (rabbit like intestine) 2. Septate fiber 8  2. Turmeric (Curcuma)  Origin: The prepared rhizomes of Curcuma domestica, Family Zingiberacae. During preparation of turmeric  Rhizomes are prepared by boiling in water, then dried in sun or air. During boiling: 1. Gelatinization of starch which gives hard fracture. 2. Due to gelatinization, the starch is partially transformed to dextrin. 3. Dextrin + I2  reddish brown color (not blue). Diffusion of the coloring matter (not restricted to cells). * Turmeric colors the saliva yellow when chewed.  Active Constituents: 1. Volatile oil, including Zingiberene and turmerone. 2. Curcumin (Coloring principle). Confirmatory Chemical tests: 1. Sprinkle a small amount of powder Curcuma into a mix. of equal parts of conc. H2SO4 / 95 % alcohol  the particles of Curcuma turn red. 2. Turmeric paper (acting as indicator) (Filter paper dipped in the extract of Curcuma). + acid (red). + alkali (blue). 9  Medicinal Uses:  Due to Curcumin: 1. Effect on liver and bile: a. It increases the production and flow of bile (cholagogue). So, it is used for digestive problems. b. It improves the action of the liver (choleretic). So, it is used as remedy for jaundice and hepatitis. 2. Strongly antibacterial especially in skin conditions: as psoriasis (a common inflammatory skin disease where red patches of skin are covered with white scales) and fungal infections. 3. Strongly antioxidant (a substance which makes oxygen less damaging in the body or in foods) than Vit.E.(Free radical scavenger). 4. Powerful anti-inflammatory: It has stronger action than hydrocortisone. 5. Lowers cholesterol levels. 6. Anticoagulant action. 7. Coloring dyes.  Contraindications: (for all drugs that has cholagogue effect) Because it increases the production and flow of bile.  so it is contraindicated in conditions where gall stones are present. 10  3. Garlic  Origin: The fresh-dried (bulbuls) of Allium sativum, Family Lilliaceae.  Active constituents: High concentration of The thiosulfinates volatile active after crushing/chopping/chewing of raw garlic inactive sulfur-containing Allicin (responsible for distinct allinase enzyme will be in contact to convert alliin into compounds called Alliin taste and smell of garlic). Allinase enzyme is irreversibly deactivated when: 1. PH below 3 (acidic PH). 2. High temperature.  Medicinal Uses:  Due to allicin and other breakdown products not Alliin: 1. Antibiotic/antimicrobial in bronchial infections (chest infection), digestive tract infections. 2. Antidiabetic/hypoglycemic drug: garlic reduces blood sugar levels. 3. Healing power: garlic was used to dress wounds in the first world war. 4. Antioxidant. 5. Remedy for CV diseases: a. Hypolipidemic: Garlic reduces blood lipid levels (fat), inhibits LDL oxidation, which is implicated in atherosclerosis. b. Hypocholesterolemia: it lowers cholesterol. c. Antihypertensive drug: it lowers blood pressure. d. Antiplatelet aggregation/Antithrombotic effect: it decreases blood clotting and thrombus formation, so It prevents CV disorders and strokes. So, it is used for old people with numerous cardiovascular disorders (CVS) and it is recommended in arteriosclerosis and heart disorders. Contraindications: – Should be stopped before surgical operations and teeth extraction to avoid bleeding. Drug-Herb Interactions: – Contraindicated with anticoagulant drugs. Important Counselling messages for garlic use: – Fresh & dried garlic preparations must be taken as enteric coated to avoid destruction of allinase enzyme by gastric acid secretions, thus active allicin is liberated in intestine. – Swollen entire garlic not recommended, it should be crushed before eating directly to liberate the active allicin. – Stored crushed garlic contain very low concentration of active allicin, because allicin is volatile and unstable during storage. – Cooked garlic is less powerful medicinally because both alliinase enzyme and allicin will be affected by heat. 11  4. Colchicum  Origin: The sliced corms of Colchicum autumnale, Family Liliaceae.  Active constituents: 1. Alkaloids: including Colchicine. (Highly toxic plant hormone). 2. Flavonoids.  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Mayer’s test: Alkaloids give creamy white ppt with Mayer’s reagent. 2. KOH test: Flavonoids give yellow color with KOH.  Medicinal Uses: 1. Anti-inflammatory: It is one of the best remedies for the relief of acute gout pain (acute attacks of gout).  Time of Collection: 1. When collected in autumn: Colchicum corm is devoid of colchicine, it is full of starch and used instead of potato for nutritional use. 2. When collected in spring or early summer: it contains colchicine and collected for medicinal use.  Precautions: Colchicum is highly toxic; it is used only under medical supervision. 12  5. Ipecacuanha  Origin: The dried root and rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha, known as Rio or Brazilian Ipecacuanha or Cephaelis acuminata, known as Cartagena Ipecacuanha, Family Rubiaceae.  Active constituents: 1. Isoquinoline alkaloids: Emetine, Cephaeline, and Psychotrine. 2. Tannins. Rio Ipeca Cartagena Ipeca Less alkaloids More alkaloids More emetine Less emetine The drug which contains more emetine is preferable due to less vomiting effect.  Confirmatory Chemical Test:  Test for emetine: Powder Ipeca + HCl + H2O, Filter on Filtrate + potassium Chlorate  yellow color changing to red on standing for 1 hr.  Medicinal Uses:  Due to presence of alkaloids: 1. Small dose of Ipeca acts as a strong expectorant in bronchitis and whooping cough. 2. Large dose of Ipeca acts as emetic drug which stimulates vomiting until the contents of the stomach are cleared; so it is useful in toxicity of overdose drugs.  Due to presence of tannins: 3. Ipeca is strong amebicidal used for amebic dysentery. 13  6. Krameria (Rhatany)  Origin: Dried roots of Krameria triandra Family Krameriaceae.  Active constituents: 1. 10-20% tannins, including phlobaphene. 2. Benzofurans (RhataniaphenolsI & II).  Confirmatory Chemical Test: 1. Microsublimation test for tannins: Heat powder Krameria = colorless droplets, which solidify after some time add FeCl3 = Faint red color.  Medicinal Uses: The medicinal uses are classified according the active constituents present:  Due to Tannins: 1. Astringent. 2. A useful remedy for problems affecting GIT, commonly used for diarrhea and dysentery. 3. Good mouthwash and gargle for bleeding and infected gums. 4. Used in the form of ointment, suppositories, or wash for treating hemorrhoids. 5. Applied to the wounds to stop strong, powerful, robust, vigorous blood flow. 6. Used in case of varicose veins, and over areas of capillary fragility that may be prone to ease bruising. 7. Natural dyes, industry of tanning, manufacture of ink.  Due to Benzofurans (Rhataniaphenols I & II): 8. Benzofurans (Rhataniaphenols I & II) are UV- light filters (protecting agents), so used in sun-protection preparations. 14  7. Rhubarb (Chinese Rhubarb)  Origin: The dried rhizomes and big roots of Rheum palmatum, Rheum officinale or other species or hybrids of Rheum excepting Rheum rhaponticum because it is toxic, Family Polygonaceae. Externally: Rhubarb is dusted with a brownish yellow powder and shows longitudinal reddish brown lines. Rhubarb is very gritty when chewed due to Ca oxalate clusters.  The covering dusting powder gives it: 1. Good appearance 2. Odor and aroma of Rhubarb (although no V.O.). 3. Prevent attack by Microorganisms and insects.  Active constituents: 1. Anthraquinones. 2. Tannins. 3. Flavonoids. 4. Phenolic acid. 5. Calcium oxalate. 6. Starch. 15  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Test for anthraquinones: A. Borntrager’s test: for free anthraquinones (Extract the powder with ether or chloroform; separate the organic layer and shake with dilute NH4OH). The aqueous layer is colored rose red. B. Modified Borntager’s test: for combined anthraquinones: a rose red color is produced in the aqueous layer. 2. Test for tannins: FeCl3 test  Blue color.  Medicinal Uses: Rhubarb regulates the function of intestine: It is used paradoxically in the treatment of constipation and diarrhea. 1. In constipation (due to presence of anthhraquinones): Large doses of the Rhubarb rhizome are taken with carminative herbs as laxative (purgative) to help clearing the colon without causing excessive cramps. (Rhubarb is used in combination with Mentha or Belladonna (Solanaceous drugs) to relive the griping effect). 2. In Diarrhea (due to presence of tannins): Small doses of the root are astringent. 16  Key Elements: 1. Starch granules. 2. Medullary rays with coloring matter. 3. Big calcium oxalate clusters. (Characteristic for Rhubarb) 4. Large reticulate xylem vessel. 17 18  Side effect: 1. The griping effect. Rhubarb is used in combination with Mentha or Belladonna (Solanaceous drugs) to relive it. 2. Prolonged use of Rhubarb cause disturbance of electrolytes balance and loss of high amount of potassium. (Hypokalemia).  Contraindications: 1. Rhubarb can not to be used in case of pregnancy. (It causes contraction of the uterus). 2. Rhubarb can not be used in case of lactation. 3. Rhubarb can not be used in renal failure due to presence of Ca-oxalate clusters  Adulteration: Rhapontic Rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum):  The main constituent is a crystalline glycoside called rhaponticin. (Toxic substance).  It shows blue fluorescence when examined under U.V. 19  8. Valerian  Origin: The dried rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officinalis Family Valerianaceae.  Active constituents: 1. Iridoid glycosides: Valepotriates (80 to 90% of which occur as valtrates). 2. Volatile Oil which consists of: Monoterpenes & Sesquiterpenes found as esters of valerenic acid. 1. Upon bad storage, valepotriates are hydrolyzed and produce isovaleric acid (bad odor).  Confirmatory Chemical Test: Sudan III Test for volatile oil gives red color under the microscope.  Medicinal Uses: The CNS depressant action of Valerian is partially due to Volatile oil and mainly due to Valepotriates. 1. Sedative and relaxant in many stress-related disorders: Valerian reduces mental over-activity and nervous excitability. Useful remedy for anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy. Relieves muscle spasms. 2. Used with other herbs in remedies for high blood pressure caused by stress and anxiety.  Drug – Herb Interactions: Don’t be taken with other sedative drugs because it’s action will be prolonged. 20  9. Squill (White Squill)  Origin: The dried sliced, fleshy scales of the bulb of Urginia maritima, (Drimia maritima) L. Family Liliaceae from which the membranous outer scales have been removed.  Active constituents: 1. Cardiac glycosides including, Scillaren A. 2. Flavonoids. 3. Mucilage (callose). 4. Sinistrin sugar.  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Keller killiani’s test for cardiac glycosides gives brown ring. 2. KOH test for Flavonoids gives yellow color. 3. Ruthenium red test for mucilage (Callose) gives red color under the microscope. 21  Medicinal Uses:  Due to presence of Cardiac glycosides (Scillaren A) 1. In small doses, the drug causes GIT irritation causing reflux secretion from bronchioles and therefore used as expectorant in chronic bronchitis for cough mixtures. 2. In large doses: it is emetic (cause vomiting). 3. Cardiotonic in heart failure (injection). N.B.: The cardiac glycosides are relatively quick-acting and don’t have the cumulative effect of Digitalis.  Key elements: – Raphides of calcium oxalate in mucilage cells.  Adulteration: Red squill: Toxic, used as rodenticide. As it contains Scilliroside glycoside (Toxic), which can be readily absorbed from intestine, then passes to blood and result in hemolysis to RBCs.  Precautions: 1. The drug is easily deteriorated due to high content of mucilage, which gives the drug hygroscopic nature. 2. Moisture absorbed by mucilage can cause decomposition of cardiac glycosides. 3. Moisture is a good medium for the growth of M.O, which deteriorate the drug. Therefore, it must be carefully dried at low temperature in vacuum oven then after drying, rapidly stored with dehydrating agent (CaCl2 or silica). 22  10. Liquorice (Sweet yellow Root)  Origin: Dried peeled or unpeeled roots & rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Family Leguminosae (Fabaceae).  Active constituents: 1. Triterpene Saponin: Glycyrrhizin. 1. The sweet principle for Liquorice. 2. It’s a non-typical saponin as it doesn’t cause blood hemolysis. 2. Flavanoids: Isoflavones (liquiritin & isoliquiritin).  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: Test for Saponins: 1. Froth test: persistent froth (Saponins glycosides) 2. 66% H2SO4 test: gives orange red color (glycyrrhizin) Test for Flavanoids: 1. KOH test: gives yellow color (due to the presence of flavonoids) Test for Reducing Sugars: 1. Fehling’s test: red/orange/brown ppt. 23  Medicinal Uses:  Due to saponins (Glycyrrhizin): 1. Demulcent and expectorant in cough mixtures. 2. Used to treat rheumatism, arthritis and inflammatory conditions due to corticosteroid effect of its glycyrrhizin content. 3. Sweetening agent to mask the taste of bitter and nauseous medicines.  Due to Flavonoids: 4. Used in treatment of peptic and duodenal ulcers. a. Healing of ulcers. b. Anti-inflammatory to reduce inflammation in case of ulcers. 5. Isoflavones are known to be estrogenic.  Due to saponins & flavonoids: 6. It has antibacterial effect; therefore, it is used in respiratory disorders (bronchitis and asthma). 7. Treatment of chronic hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. 24  Key Elements: 1. Starch granules. 2. Xylem vessels with bordered pits. 3. Crystal sheath. (Characteristic for Liquorice) 4. Cork cells. (Characteristic for Liquorice) 25 26  Precautions:  Liquorice is not recommended and should be avoided by hypertensive patients because it causes H2O retention and electrolytes imbalance (Cortisone like effect).  Not recommended in case of osteoporosis.  Derivatives of liquorice:  DGL (DeGlycyrrihizenated Liquorice) is flavonoid rich fraction from liquorice extract. 27  11. Dioscorea (Wild Yam, Rheumatism root, Colic root)  Origin: The dried roots and rhizomes of Dioscorea villosa, Family Dioscoreaceae. Wild Yam is the plant source of steroid like substance, diosgenin, which was the starting point in the creation of the first contraceptive pill.  Active constituents: 1. Steroidal saponins glycosides (mainly dioscin). 2. Phytosterols (beta-sitosterol). 3. Starch.  Confirmatory chemical test: 1. Froth test: persistent froth (Saponins glycosides) 28  Medicinal Uses:  Due to the presence of steroidal saponin glycosides (mainly dioscin). 1. Dioscin glycoside upon hydrolysis gives Diosgenin (aglycone part), which is the way for the synthesis of progesterone (one of the female sex hormones) & corticosteroid hormones such as cortisone. 2. Dioscin glycoside is anti-inflammatory drug used in treating rheumatic conditions, thus it is known as Rheumatism root, and helps to relieve cramps, muscle tension and colic, so it is also called as Colic root. a. The herb’s combination of anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic actions makes it extremely useful in treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. b. It reduces inflammation and pain, and relaxes stiff muscles in the affected area. 29  12. Senega (Rattlesnake root)  Origin: The dried root and rot-stock of Polygala senega, Family Polygalaceae.  Active constituents: 1. Triterpenoid saponins (including senegins) 2. Phenolic acids 3. Methyl salicylate 4. Polygalitol (sweet taste) 5. sterols  Confirmatory chemical test: 1. Froth test: persistent froth (Saponins glycosides)  Medicinal Uses:  Due to the presence of Triterpenoid saponins (senegins): 1- Expectorant: it is used to treat bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis and whooping cough, promoting the coughing up of mucus from the chest & has a stimulant action on the bronchial mucous membranes. 2- In folk medicine, Senega is the most powerful antiphlogistic (it treats fever and inflammation); It promotes sweating and thus reduces fever.  Precautions: Senega in excessive doses can cause diarrhea and vomiting. 30  13. Echinacea (Purple coneflower)  Origin: Dried rhizomes and roots, aerial parts and whole plant of Echinacea angustifolia and Echinacea purpurea. Family Compositae (Asteraceae).  Active constituents: 1. Alkylamides. 2. Caffeic acid esters (mainly echinacoside and cynarin). 3. Polysaccharides (including Echinacin B). 4. Volatile oil (humulene).  Confirmatory Chemical Test: Sudan III gives red color with volatile oil under the microscope.  Medicinal Uses:  Due to alkylamides and polysaccharides (Echinacin B): 1. Echinacea stimulates the immune system (raises the body’s resistance) to counter both bacterial and viral infections. Echinacea is used in combination with Hydrastis (Golden Seal) to strengthen the immune system.  Due to Caffeic acid esters (cynarin): 2. Detoxifying agent in case of liver toxicity.  Due to Polysaccharides (Echinacin B): 3. Echinacin B has anti-hyaluronidase action: 1. It can inhibit the ability of viruses to enter and take over cells. 2. It helps healing of wounds (acne, boils and abscesses). 31  14. Jalap  Origin: The dried roots of Ipomea purga (Convolvulus jalapa), Family Convolvulaceae.  The roots are collected, washed and placed in nets  Dried over fire, which gives the:  Smoky odor.  Hard texture due to the gelatinization of starch.  Active constituents: 1. Resin (Convolvulin)  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. I2 yellowish brown stain. (Due to gelatinization of starch) 2. Alkanna Tincture Red stain. (Due to the presence of resin = Convolvulin)  Medicinal Uses: 1. Jalap is a powerful cathartic, even in moderate doses, it stimulates the elimination of watery stool. 2. In larger doses it causes vomiting.  Side effects: 1. Gripping effect: It is recommended to prescribe Belladonna with Jalap to decrease its gripping effect. 32  Chapter 2 Bark Introduction  Introduction to Barks Definition: All tissues of the stem or the root of woody plants that is exterior to the vascular cambium,where the separation takes place. Formation of Bark: The change by which the bark is developed from the tissues of the young stem is due to the activity of two circles of meristematic cells: 1. An inner circle: vascular cambium. 2. An outer circle: phellogen (cork cambium). The vascular cambium produces: Wood (2nd xylem) towards the interior of the stem. Bast (2nd phloem) towards the exterior. The cork cambium (phellogen) produces: Cork cells (phellen) towards the exterior. Phelloderm (Secondary cortex or Cork parenchyma) towards the interior. 33 Composition of the bark: external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem and periderm. 1. Outer bark: It includes all tissues produced on the outer side of cork cambium (phellogen). It is thus the cork region, the cell walls of which are impregnated with suberin. 2. Middle bark: It is the area between the outer bark (cork) and the phloem (inner bark); it is thus the cortex region. 3. Inner bark: It consists of the phloem which is separated from the wood by the vascular cambium. Barks used medicinally may represent some or all these areas. 34 Shapes of Bark: the bark tends to curve transversely during drying, with the inner softer surface curving more than the outer surface, resulting in various concave forms but remains longitudinally straight. Several special terms are used to describe the shape: 1. Flat: Refers to bark in large, thick, flat pieces, e.g., Quillaia (barks derived from old trunks). 2. Curved: Slightly concave on the inner side, e.g., Wild Cherry. 3. Channeled: Deeply concave on the inner side, to form a trough, e.g., Cassia & Canella. 4. Quill (Single quill): When curvature is so great so that the edges overlap, e.g., Cascara, Cassia, Canella and Cinchona. 5. Double Quill: Both edges of a piece are separately (independently) rolled into a quill e.g., Frangula and pale Cinchona. 6. Compound Quill: When single or double quills are packed one inside the other as in Cinnamon. Flat Curved Channeled Single Quill Double Quill Compound Quill 35 Characters of Outer Surfaces: A. Outer surface: The most important characters to be considered in the outer surface of barks are color, presence, or absence of epiphytes (lichens, mosses, etc.) and external markings. 1. Epiphytes: Are present only on the stem bark (aid in distinguishing stem-bark from root-bark). They include: Lichens (Lichens is formed of symbiosis phenomenon between algae and fungi): With grayish thalloid structures and dark apothecia e.g., Cascara,Cinchona and Cascarilla. Liverworts: With flat leaf appearance, e.g., Cascara. Moss: With spirally arranged small thin leaves e.g., Cascara and Cinchona. 2. External markings: These include: Lenticels: As a stem thickens from secondary growth, the epidermis, including stomata that allowed gas exchange for the herbaceous stem dies. Stomata are replaced by lenticels which permit gas exchange. 36 Histological Structure of Barks: Commercial bark consists of some or all the following tissues, starting from the outside: 1. Rhytidoma: Dead tissues cut off by the cork. It is formed of successive bands of dead cork enclosing in between dead collapsed cortical and/or other deeper tissues (phloem). It is not frequently present in commercial barks, being usually removed during the preparation. 2. Phellen (Cork cells): It is produced to the outside from the cork cambium (meristematic layer) by repeated division. They usually contain reddish contents, rich in tannins. 3. Phellogen (Cork cambium): They are meristematic cells. They give suberised cork cells to the outside and unsuberised parenchymatous phelloderm (secondary cortex) to the inside. The phellogen and its products of division (cork cells and phelloderm) compose the periderm. 4. Phelloderm (Secondary cortex): Tissue developed from the phellogen, but on its inner surface. Formed of unsuberised cells arranged in short radial rows. 5. Cortex (Primary cortex): This is the original cortex of the stem of bark. It is composed of parenchymatous tissue. 6. Pericycle: It may be sclerenchymatous consist of sclereids & pericycle fibers. 7. Bast (Phloem): The primary phloem is usually collapsed, thus the bast is practically composed of secondary phloem. It is usually composed of sieve tubes with companion cells. 37 In the preparation of commercial bark, part of the tissues outside the secondary phloem may be removed by decortication as they are either 1. Lacking the medicinally active constituents of the drug. 2. Containing undesirable bitter constituents and undesirable amount of tannins or coloring matters (e.g. cinnamon). Therefore, Cork may be absent in many barks due to: 1. Decortication: removal of part or whole of the tissues outside the 2ry phloem. 2. Exfoliation: natural falling of the cork. 38 Chapter 2 Bark Drugs  Barks containing anthraquinone glycosides 1 & 2. Cascara & Frangula P.O.C Cascara Frangula Origin The dried stem bark of Rhumnus purshiana The dried stem bark of Rhumnus Family Rhamnaceae. frangula Family Rhamnaceae. Shape Single Quill. Double quill of smaller size than cascara. Color Yellowish brown. Cork is Purplish with whitish lenticels on scraping the outer surface crimson inner bark is exposed. Lenticels Less in number. Whitish lenticels are more numerous. Lichens Present. Absent. Taste Bitter. Sweet followed by bitterness, more palatable than Cascara, because it has less disagreeable taste Glucofrangulin drying frangulin + glucose. Active 1. Anthrquinone glycosides 1. Anthraquinone glycosides constituents Cascaroside A, B, C & D in cork and Glucofrangulin A & B in medullary rays. medullary rays. 2. Mucilage. 2. Mucilage. Confirmatory chemical tests: 1. Test for Free & 1. Borntrager’s test: for free anthraquinones: chloroformic extract gives with combined NH4OH a rose (pink) to intense red in the aqueous layer. anthraquinones 2. Modified borntrager’s: for combined anthraquinones: chloroformic extract gives with NH4OH a rose (pink) to intense red in the aqueous layer. 2. Test for Red color with coralin soda. Red color with ruthenium red. mucilage Micro Yellow crystalline sublimate + KOH → Red color. sublimation test 39  Microscopically 1. Crystal sheath. Common Key Elements 2. Cork cells with reddish brown contents surrounded by parenchymal cells with single prisms of calcium oxalate. 3. Parenchyma cells of the cortex containing clusters of calcium oxalate and starch. Microscopically Sclerides are present. Sclerides have equal No sclerides Difference Key Element thick lignified wall with stratifications. Medicinal Laxative drug (cathartic in large dose) for treatment of constipation. Actions and Uses Milder than Senna, safely used for long term in the treatment of constipation to encourage the return of regular bowel movement. Act on the walls of the colon, stimulating a bowel movement (peristalses) after 8-10 hours after ingestion. It is beneficial: ✓ If the muscles of the colon are weak. ✓ If there is poor bile flow. Side effects 1. Cramp like discomfort (Solution: in combination with Mentha). 2. Long term use causes the disturbance of electrolytes (K+ deficiency). (Solution: K supplement e.g., Banana). Contraindications ▪ It should not be taken during pregnancy, since it causes muscle contraction & abortion may occur. N.B. Both Cascara & Frangula should be stored at least one year before being used in medicine and not after four years; To make the action milder as the fresh bark is violently purgative. 40 41  3. Quillaia (Soap bark) Origin: The dried inner bark of Quillaia saponaria, Familly Rosaceae. Color: Pale-brownish or yellowish white. Active constituents: 1. Triterpenoid saponin: A. Quillaic acid. B. Quillaia sapotoxin. Confirmatory Chemical Test: Froth test – Triterpenoid saponin – persistent froth > 0.5 ml. Medicinal Uses: (for external use only) Due to presence of Triterpenoid saponin: 1. Treatment of skin ulcers. 2. In hair preparation and shampoos as antidandruff. 3. Foaming agent in fire extinguishers. Why Quillaia isn’t used internally although saponins are expectorant? 1. It produces severe GIT irritation. 2. Injection of large amounts can cause: Systemic poisoning with liver damage, respiratory failure, convulsions (uncontrollable muscle contractions), coma. 3. After intravenous injection, it causes hemolysis (rupturing of RBC’S and releasing its contents). 42  4. Wild Cherry (Wild Black Cherry, Virginian Prune bark) Origin: The dried stem inner bark of Prunus serotina, Family Rosaceae. Active constituents: 1. Cyanogenic glycoside: Prunasin. Prunasin Prunase enzyme + moisture HCN + benzaldehyde + glucose. 2. Tannins. Confirmatory Chemical Test: Test for HCN (Linnamarin / Guignard’s test): 1. Small pieces of the bark + H2O in a test tube closed with a cork holding a strip of moistened sodium picrate paper (Guignard’s paper). 2. HCN evolved over a period of 30 min will change the yellow color (Na picrate) to a brick red (Na picramate). Medicinal Uses: Due to Prunasin 1. Antitussive, used in cough preparation. 2. Treat asthma, whooping cough. Due to Tannins 3. Used in case of indigestion and the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, especially when these conditions are of nervous origin. Precautions: highly toxic in excessive doses. 43  5. Hamamelis (Witch Hazel bark) Origin: The dried bark of Hamamelis virginian Family Hamamelidaceae. Active constituents: 1. High percentage of Hamamelitannin (gallotannin). 2. Small number of condensed tannins. Confirmatory Chemical Test: Ferric Chloride test for hydrolysable tannins (Hamamelitanin/gallotannin) ▬▬▬► bluish black ppt Medicinal Uses: Due to large quantity of tannins: 1. Hamamelis is used internally for: A. Diarrhea. B. Varicose veins. C. Excessive menstruation. D. Prostate congestion and inflammation. 2. Hamamelis is used externally for: A. Healing of broken skin. B. Bruises, burns, eye and skin inflammation. C. Hemorrhoids. 44  6. Cinchona (Countess bark, Peruvian bark) Origin: The dried stem and root barks of Cinchona succirubra known as red cinchona (succirubra Latin = red juice), Cinchona ledgeriana, Cinchona calisaya known as yellow cinchona and Cinchona officinalis known as pale cinchona. Family Rubiaceae. Description: (stem bark) ▪ Odor: faint characteristic. ▪ Taste: bitter astringent. ▪ Shape: quill, double quill. ▪ Outer surface: 1. Grayish- brown to reddish – brown, usually is bearing whitish or grey lichens and mosses (epiphytes). 2. Outer surface of stem-bark shows lenticels. Active constituents: 1. Quinoline alkaloids: The plant grows well at low levels but produce no alkaloids, it requires elevation to produce it active constituents. A. Quinine. B. Quinidine. 2. Tannins: cinchotannic acid. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Test for alkaloids: Quinine and Quinidine give blue fluorescence with diluted oxygenated acid as H2SO4. (HCl -ve). 2. Test for tannins: Aqueous extract +FeCl3 → green color. 3. Sublimation test (for red cinchona): Heat powdered cinchona in a dry tube → purplish red vapors, which condense on the colder parts of the wall → purplish-red tarry drops. 45  Medicinal Uses: Due to alkaloids: 1. Digestive stimulant: Bitter tonic, stimulates saliva, digestive secretions appetite and improves weak digestive function. 2. Cinchona is used in herbal medicine for cramps and relieves arthritis. Due to Quinine alkaloid: 3. Antimalarial: in preventing and treating malaria. Due to Quinidine alkaloid: 4. Treatment of earlier arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation. Due to Tannins: 5. Cinchona is useful as a gargle for sore and infected throats, also as astringent. Key Elements: 1. Fragments of thick-walled cork cells, filled with reddish brown content. 46 2. Wide yellowish phloem (bast) fibers, entire or broken with round (blunt) apex & narrow funnel-shaped lumen with strongly lignified thickened walls and faint longitudinal striations. 3. Fragment of brown parenchyma with the idioblasts of microcrystals of calcium oxalate. 4. Fragment of parenchyma cells containing starch granules. 47 48  Contraindications: Contraindicated in pregnancy as it causes abortion. Drug - Herb Interactions: Potentiating of concurrently administrated anticoagulants. Difference between Cinchona stem bark and root bark 49  7. Pomegranate (Granatum) Origin: The dried stem and root barks of Punica granatum, Family Punicaceae. Active Constituents: 1. Piperidine alkaloids: 4 liquid alkaloids: A. Pelletierine. B. Isopelletierine. C. methyl pelletierine. D. methyl isopelletierine. 1 crystalline alkaloid: A. pseudo-pelletierine. 2. High percentage of tannins: A. Ellagitannins. (hydrolysable). Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Ferric chloride test: Aqueous extract of powdered Pomegranate bark + FeCl3 ▬▬▬▬▬►bluish black ppt. (hydrolysable tannins) 2. Calcium hydroxide test: Powder + Ca (OH)2▬▬▬►orange, brown flocculent (heavy) ppt. 50  Medicinal Actions and Uses: Due to presence of the alkaloids: 1. Anthelmintic to expel tapeworms: the alkaloids present in the bark cause the worm to release its grip on the intestinal wall. If a decoction of Pomegranate bark is immediately followed by a dose of a strong laxative or purgative, the worm will be voided. Due to presence of the tannins: 2. Strongly astringent and occasionally have been used to treat diarrhea. Key Elements: ❖ Test for purity: Pomegranate contains no bast fibres and not more than occasional fragments of wood elements. Precautions: Pelletierine alkaloids are highly toxic don’t use unless under medical supervision. 51  8. Cinnamon Origin: The dried stem bark of the shoots of the coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Family Lauraceae deprived of most of its cortex and known as Ceylon cinnamon. Characters: Shape: Single or double compound quills. Odor: Fragrant. Taste: Warm sweet and aromatic. Active Constituents: 1. Volatile oil contain: A. Cinnamaldehyde. B. Eugenol. 2. Mucilage. 3. Condensed tannins. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Test for Volatile oil: Sudan III ▬▬▬▬▬►red color under microscope. 2. Test for Eugenol: KOH ▬▬▬▬► yellow needle crystals from Potassium Eugenate. 3. Test for Mucilage: Coraline Soda ▬▬▬▬▬► red color. 4.Test for Condensed tannins: FeCl3 ▬▬▬▬▬► green color. 52  Medicinal Uses: Due to Volatile oil (Cinnamaldehyde & Eugenol): 1. Warming stimulant in cold conditions, in combination with Ginger, it stimulates and improves the circulation especially to the finger and toes so can be used in chilblains (soreness caused by poor local blood flow). 2. Remedy for digestive problems such as nausea, vomiting, antispasmodic and carminative. 3. Flavoring agent: spice in cooking. 4. Emmenagogue: stimulates the uterus and encourages menstrual bleeding. 5. Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral in common cold and influenza. Due to Condensed tannins: 6. Cinnamon bark is stated to be astringent. Key Elements: 1. Complete absence of cork cells. 2. Narrow yellowish phloem (bast) fibers, entire or broken with tapered (sharp/pointed) apex & straight lumen with strongly lignified thickened walls and no striations. 53 3. Pericycle contains sclerides with equal & unequal thickened lignified walls showing pit canals, the lumen is visible and sometimes containing starch. 4. The secondary phloem is composed of phloem parenchyma containing oil, mucilage and some of them contain tannins. 5. Phloem parenchyma is composed of thin-walled cells with yellowish brown walls containing starch in simple and compound grains, acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. 6. Medullary ray cells are thin walled with yellow brown cell contents containing acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. 54 55  ▪ Substitutes of Cinnamon (Ceylon cinnamon): ✓ Cassia known as Chinese cinnamon. ✓ Canella known as Wild or white cinnamon. 8. Cinnamon (Ceylon 9. Cassia (Chinese 10. Canella (Wild or P.O.C cinnamon) cinnamon) white cinnamon) Origin The dried decorticated stem The dried stem bark of The dried decorticated bark of Cinnamomum Cinnamomum Cassia stem bark of Canella zeylanicum Family Family Lauraceae. alba Family Lauraceae. Canellaceae. N.B.: Why decorticated? N.B.: Why decorticated? 1. Unpalatable taste. 1. Unpalatable taste. 2. Absence of active 2. Absence of active ingredients. ingredients. Shape Decorticated, single or Channeled or single Decorticated, double compound quill. quill (complete bark Channeled or single smaller in size). quill. Odor Cinnamon like odor. Color Light brown. Dark brown. Light. Taste Sweet, less astringent. Sweet more astringent, Aromatic, somewhat mucilaginous. pungent bitter. Microscopical 1. Absence of cork cells. examination 1. Presence of cork 1. Absence of cork cells. cells. 56  2. Medullary rays contain 2. Medullary rays 2. Medullary rays acicular crystal of contain acicular contain clusters of calcium oxalate. crystal of calcium calcium oxalate. oxalate. Active Volatile oil: NO Constituents Volatile oil: Volatile oil: NO EUGENOL. CINNAMLDEHYDE. 1. Cinnamaldehyde 1. Cinnamaldehyde 1. Cineole. (55%). (85%). 2. α-pinene. 2. Eugenol. Condensed tannins 3. Eugenol. Condensed tannins NO TANNINS Test for Yellow needle crystals. No crystals Yellow needle eugenol + crystals. KOH: Test for Greenish color due to the presence of Condensed Absence of tannins tannins + tannins. FeCl : 3 Uses As before. Carminative, improve digestion and aromatic stimulant. 57  Chapter 3 Wood Introduction  Introduction to Wood Definition: All portion of the axis of woody plants laying inside the vascular cambium. It consists mainly of secondary xylem, very small amount of primary xylem and pith. The wood is obtained from the trunks, branches or coniferous trees. Types of wood: Sapwood Heartwood 1) Pale in color. 1) Dark in color. 2) Living cells contain reserved food (can 2) Dead thick, lignified cells, no reserved be attacked by microorganisms). food and contains resin, tannins, coloring matter and active constituents. 3) Function as support and conduction. 3) Function for support only. 4) Constitutes the outer layer of the wood. 4) Constitutes the inner portion of the wood. 5) Less thick and lignified. 5) More thickened and lignified. Density of the wood: 1. The densities of the different woods are due to variations in the proportion of wall substance and lumen space. 2. Abundance of thick-walled elements and of cell contents (resin, tannins, ….) makes a wood heavier and denser. e.g., Gauaiacum. 3. Presence of numerous, thin-walled vessels and empty cell-cavities, reduces the specific gravity. 58 Structural wood elements: (all elements are lignified) 1. Wood fibers: ❑ They form the principal constituent element of wood. 2. Tracheids: ❑ Water conducting elements and serve also for support. The end walls separating tracheids from one another are never perforated. 3. Vessels: ❑ Wide water-conducting tubes, formed from several cells, placed end to end, by the partial or complete disintegration of their end walls. 4. Wood parenchyma: ❑ Serves for food storage and conduction. 5. Medullary rays: ❑ Regular bands of radially elongated parenchyma, functioning mainly as storage and as conducting tissue. Arrangement of constituting wood elements: a) Longitudinal system: Consisting of overlapping or interlocked elongated cells: fibers, tracheids, vessels, and longitudinal rows of parenchyma cells. b) Radiating system: Consisting of horizontally elongated bands of medullary rays. Annual rings: Each 2 successive rings corresponding to one-year growth, thus called annular rings. 59 Chapter 3 Wood Drugs  1. Quassia (Bitter wood) Origin: The dried sap wood of the trunk and branches of Picrasma excelsa known as Jamica Quassia or of Quassia amara known as Surinam Quassia Family Simarubiaceae. Active constituents: 1. Bitter amaroids: Quassin, Picrasmin and Neoquassin. (Quassin in commerce is a molecular complex of the 3 constituents) 2. High percentage of lignin. Confirmatory chemical test: 1. Powder + alcohol., boil, filter, filtrate + phloroglucin and conc HCl → red color due to quassin & High percentage of lignin. Medicinal uses: Due to quassin: 1. Non astringent bitter tonic so can be used safely with iron preparation and in case of anemia (no tannins gives no color with FeCl3). 2. It is used in case of lack of appetite. 3. Anthelmintic: Used to expel thread worms (as enema). 4. It is used externally against lice infestations. 60  Key elements: 1. Wide pitted xylem vessels. 2. Medullary rays with starch granules. 3. Wood Fiber with slit like pits & wood parenchyma with calcium oxalate prisms & starch granules. 61 62  2. Guaiacum wood (Lignum Vitae) Origin: Dried wood of Guaiacum officinale and Guaiacum sanctum Family Zygophyllaceae. Active constituents: 1. Resin acid (20-25%) αand β-guaiaconic acid, guaiaretic acid. 2. Lignans: furoguaicidin and guaiacin. 3. Terpenes. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Pb peroxide test: Powder extract + Pb peroxide gives blue color which disappears by boiling. 2. FeCl3 test: blue color changes to green finally to yellow. Medicinal Uses: Due to presence of all active constituents 1. Remedy for arthritic and rheumatic conditions. 2. It has anti-inflammatory properties that help to reduce joint pain. 3. Diuretic, laxative and induce sweat It speeds the elimination of toxins, which makes it valuable for treating gout. 4. Externally as rub on rheumatic areas. 63  3. Sandalwood (Yellow & White Sandalwood) Origin: The dried heart wood of Santalum album Family Santalaceae. Active constituents: 1. Essential oil (volatile oil) rich in β-Santalol. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Sudan III test: gives orange red color due to the presence of volatile oil. Medicinal Uses: Due to presence of volatile oil (-santalol) 1. The oil is stimulant and disinfectant of the genito- urinary tract and diuretic. 2. Flavor in foods and beverages. 3. Expectorant in bronchitis. 4. In the manufacture of incense perfumery and fragrance in soaps, creams, and lotions. 64  Chapter 4 Unorganized Drugs Introduction & Drugs  Unorganized drugs 1. They are crude drugs of plant or animal origin and having no cellular or definite structure. 2. They are either mixture of chemical substances or they are decomposition products. 3. They are produced either normally (secretory structures) or pathologically because of injuries. They are classified into several groups: A. Gums. B. Resins. C. Resin combinations. D. Juices. E. Extracts. F. Lattices. Plant Origin A.Gums Characters of Gums: 1. Gums are amorphous, translucent solids. 2. Gums are insoluble in alcohol and in most organic substances. 3. Gums in water yield viscous adhesive solutions or swollen by absorption of water into a jelly like mass. 4. Gums consist of calcium, potassium, and magnesium salts of complex polyuronides. 5. Gums can be hydrolysed by prolonged boiling with dilute acid to yield mixture of monosaccharides & uronic acids. 6. Gums are abnormal substances produced by pathological conditions as injury or unfavourable conditions of growth. 7. Mucilage is similar in constitution to gums but are normal products of cell activity as in Linseed. 65  1. Gum Arabic/ Gum Acacia & 2. Gum Tragacanth P.O.C 1. Gum Arabic / Gum Acacia 2. Gum Tragacanth Origin The dried gummy exudates obtained by incision The dried gummy exudates obtained by incision from the trunk and branches of Acacia Senegal from the trunk and branches of Astragalus and other African species of Acacia Family gummifer and other Asiatic species of Astragalus Leguminosae. Family Leguminosae. Solubility ✓ In water yield viscous adhesive solutions or swollen by absorption of water into a jelly like mass. ✓ Insoluble in ethanol and in ether. Morphology It is opaque breaks up easily into small It is flat ribbon shapes pieces. transparent fragments. 66  Active 1. Arabin: a complex mixture of calcium, 1. Bassorin: a complex of polyhydroxylated acids. constituents magnesium, and potassium salts of Arabic 2. Tragacanthin: demethoxylated bassorin. acid. 2. Arabic acid: branched polysaccharide. 3. Enzymes: oxidases, peroxidases, and pectinases. Confirmatory chemical tests: a) Litmus paper a) Aqueous solution is acidic to litmus. a) Aqueous solution is not acidic to litmus. b) Tr. Benzidine b) Blue color due to the presence of oxidase enzymes. b) No color due to the absence of oxidase enzymes. c) I2 solution c) No color. c) Blue color. d) KOH d) No canary yellow colour. d) Canary yellow colour. Medicinal 1. Both are used as suspending agent for insoluble powders in mixtures. Uses 2. Demulcent and emollient in cosmetic preparation. 3. Emulsifying agent for oils and resins. 67  B. Resin 3. Colophony Origin: The dried residue left after distilling the volatile oil from the oleoresin obtained from Pinus palustris and other species of Pinus Family Pinaceae. Solubility: Insoluble in water. Soluble in chloroform and ethanol Active constituents: 1. Resin acids: 80-90% of diterpene acids (abietic acid). 2. Volatile Oil. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Copper acetate test (special test for abietic acid): benzene extract of colophony powder, filter, add to filtrate equal volume of copper acetate solution and shake → benzene layer turns bright blue-green color. 2. Acetic anhydride / H2SO4 Test (special test for abietic acid): → bright pink color → violet color. Medicinal Uses: Due to abetic acid: 1. Stimulant and diuretic. 2. Ingredient of ointments and plasters, some varnishes and paint dryers, printing inks and floor coverings. 68  C. Resin Combination 4. Myrrh Origin: Oleogumresin obtained from the stems and branches of Commiphora molmol and other species of Commiphora Family Burseraceae. Solubility: It is partially soluble in alcohol. Active constituents: 1. Volatile oil. 2. Resin. 3. Gum. 4. Bitter principle. Confirmatory Chemical Test: Triturate powdered myrrh with water → yellowish brown emulsion. (Due to presence of gum act as emulsifying agent) Medicinal Uses: Due to the presence of oleogumresin: 1. Antiseptic in mouth wash preparations. 2. Uterine stimulant and emmenagogue. 3. Stomachic. 4. In perfume. 69  D. Dried juices 5. Aloe Origin: The solid residue obtained by evaporating the liquid juice, which drains from the leaves, cut transversely near their bases, of Aloe ferox and its hybrids known in commerce as Cape Aloes, or of Aloe perryi known in commerce as Socotrine or Zinzibar Aloes or of Aloe vera known in commerce as Curacao Aloes Family Liliaceae. Methods of preparations: 1. Vitreous: rapid evaporations & rapid cooling to give upon breaking (glassy fracture) translucent fragments without crystals of aloin. 2. Hepatic (livery): slow evaporations & slow cooling to give opaque masses with crystals of aloin (barbaloin). Aloe ferox Aloe vera Aloe perryi Cape Aloe Curacao Aloe Socotrine or Zinzibar Aloe Vitreous Hepatic and vitreous Hepatic Solubility: 1. Completely soluble in ethanol, alkali and glacial acetic acid. 2. Partially soluble in water, chloroform and ether. Active constituents: 1. Number of anthraquinone glycosides, the major one is barbaloin. 2. A number of free anthraquinones (Aloe-emodin). 70  Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Borax test for Anthranols (Aloe-emodin): Aqueous extract + borax (Na2B4O7) → green fluorescence. 2. Borntrager’s test for free anthraquinones (Aloe-emodin): Aqueous extract, shake with benzene, add NH4OH to benzene layer → cherry red color in the aqueous layer. Medicinal Uses: 1. Cathartic / laxative. 2. Useful in case of hair fall. Nitric Acid test to distinguish between Aloe species Add nitric solution to an aqueous solution of Aloe 71  E. Dried Aqueous Extracts 6. Agar Origin: It is the dried and bleached (by exposure to sun) product obtained by concentrating a decoction made by boiling marine algae of Gelidium species in water. Solubility: ✓ Soluble in boiling water. ✓ Insoluble in cold water, slowly swells. Active constituents: 1. It is the calcium salt of strongly ionized acidic polysaccharides. 2. It can be resolved into two major fractions, agarose and agaropectin. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1) Powder + Ruthenium Red → the particles are stained deep red. 2) Powder + KOH → deep yellow color. 3) Powder + I2 → reddish to violet but not blue color. 4) Aqueous solution + dil. HCl, boil in water bath for 30 minutes, add BaCl2 → white ppt. Medicinal Uses: 1) Laxative. 2) Suspending agent and emulsifier. 3) Gelatin agent for suppositories. 4) Tablets disintegrate. 5) Used as a gel in bacteriologic culture media, as solidifying agent. 6) In food processing. 72  F. Dried lattices 7. Opium latex: Latex of poppy capsule Origin: The air-dried latex obtained by incision of unripe capsule of Papaver sominefrum Family Papaveraceae. Active Constituents: 1. Opium contains a large number of alkaloids, the most important of them: morphine, codeine, papaverine. 2. Opium contains 3-5 % meconic acid (organic acid) characteristic which exists free or in combination with alkaloids. It was not detected in any other sources & it is found in a limited number of poppies, so it can be used as identification marker of opium alkaloids. Opium latex: It is a white turbid fluid which becomes solid after drying. Latex is found in special structure in laticiferous vessels formed by fusion of phloem parenchymatous cells. It has strong narcotic odor and very bitter taste. Incisions are made in full grown unripe capsule by three methods to have three types of opium latex: Indian Turkish Macedonian or Persian A set of vertical Seven parallel incisions around Only a single horizontal incision incisions. the equator of the capsule. is made around capsule. 73  Confirmatory Chemical tests: Tests for morphine: 1. Ferric chloride test: Acid solution of morphine + dilute solution of potassium ferricyanide + FeCl3 → deep blue colour (reduction of ferricyanide to ferrocyanide) 2. Nitric acid test: Morphine + conc. Nitric acid → red colour by heating gives yellow colour. Test for meconic acid: 1. Ferric chloride test: Extract of opium latex (Alkaloids & meconic acid) then CaCl2 or MgO to give ppt. of Ca meconate or Mg meconate which is decomposed by HCl to give meconic acid which gives deep purplish red colour with FeCl3 → this colour is stable. Medicinal Uses: 1- Narcotic and strong analgesic in cancer (morphine). 2- Cough sedative (codeine). 3- Smooth muscle relaxant (papaverine). 74  Animal Origin 1. Cantharidis and 2. Cochineal P.O.C 1. Cantharidis 2. Cochineal  Nature:  Whole insect. (Spanish fly,  Whole insect (female). Russian fly, blistering beetle)  Source:  Southern and Central Europe.  Central America.  Active  Canthridin (inner anhydride of  Carminic acid Constituents: a dibasic acid canthridic acid). (anthraquinone C-glycoside).  Medicinal Uses:  Externally: Irritant and  Coloring agent and as rubefacient plasters and hair indicators in acid – base preparations also for removal titration. of warts.  Carmine: name of the  Cantharidis having an preparation: The aluminium ammoniacal odor should not salt of carminic acid. be used internally.  Chemical test:  ------------------------------  Shake powdered Cochineal with water and filter. The red colour filtrate is changed to purple by alkalis and to light orange by acids. 3. Amber and 4. Musk P.O.C Amber Musk  Origin:  Ambergris, a very expensive  The dried secretion from the substance used in perfume. It follicles of the musk deer is a pathological product found Moschus moschiferus, a in the intestine of sperm small deer found in China and whales. Himalayas.  Active  Ambrein, responsible for the  Mainly volatile oils contain a Constituents: fragrant musk-like odour. cyclic ketone (15C) called muskone.  Medicinal Uses: Used in perfumes. 75  4. Gelatin Origin: It is a mixture of gel-forming proteins obtained by treating certain animal tissues, particularly skin and bones with hot water. The process converts insoluble collagens into soluble gelatin, the solution is then purified and concentrated to a solid form. Active constituents: 1. Protein glutin. Confirmatory Chemical Tests: 1. Heating with soda lime gives odor of ammonia. 2. Tannic acid Test gives a white precipitant. 3. Picric acid Test for proteins gives yellow ppt. (We distinguish between agar & gelatin) Medicinal Uses: 1. In preparation of capsules. 2. It is used as a base for glycerin suppositories. 3. Nutrient, used in preparation of food products. 4. In bacteriologic culture media. 5. Bees Wax Origin: The wax separated from the honeycomb of the hive bee, Apis mellifera and other species of Apis Family Apidae. Active constituents: 1. 80% myricin (myricyl palmitate and stearate). Medicinal Uses: 1. In ointments. 2. In preparation of plasters. 3. Commercially it is an ingredient in polishes. 76  Chapter 5 Pharmacognostical features  Pharmacognostical features Ethnobotany: The study of plant use by humans. According to the above definition, ethnobotany focuses not only on medicinal plants, but also on other natural products derived from nature, such as: food, coloring agents, fiber plants, poisons, fertilizers, building materials for houses, household items, boats, etc., ornamentals and oil plants. Ethnopharmacology: The interdisciplinary scientific exploration of biologically active reagents traditionally employed or observed by man. Ethnopharmacy: An approach encompasses all the relevant disciplines: pharmacognosy, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, drug delivery, toxicology, bioavailability, and metabolism studies, as well as pharmacy practice and policy development. The role of ethnopharmacology: 1. Study the pharmacological effects of the most widely used species. 2. Further develop local ethnopharmacopoeias. 3. Characterize the relevant constituents. 4. Formulate improved natural preparations. The Pharmacopoeia: It is a governmental publication that contain a listing of all the official drugs along with their description and requirements that make them suitable for use by human. Types of drugs: 1. An unofficial drug is not listed in the pharmacopoeia 2. An official drug is that which is described in the pharmacopoeia. Application of Botany & Medicinal Plants What is Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)? CAM is a group of diverse medical and health care systems including practices (e.g., massage and acupuncture), and products (drinking green tea) that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine. Conventional medicine: is medicine as practiced by holders of M.D. (medical doctor) Are complementary medicine and alternative medicine different from each other? Yes, they are different. Complementary medicine is used together with conventional medicine. An example of a complementary therapy is using aromatherapy to help lessen a patient's discomfort following surgery. Alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine. An example of an alternative therapy is using a special diet to treat cancer instead of undergoing surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy that has been recommended by a conventional doctor. 77 What are the major types of complementary and alternative medicine? Acupuncture: is a method of healing developed in China at least 2,000 years ago. Today, acupuncture describes a family of procedures involving stimulation of anatomical points on the body by a variety of techniques. Aromatherapy: involves the use of essential oils (extracts or essences) from flowers,herbs, and trees to promote health and well-being. Ayurveda: includes diet and herbal (medicinal plants) remedies that emphasizes the use of body, mind, and spirit in disease prevention and treatment. Dietary supplements: A dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) taken by mouth that contains a "dietary ingredient" intended to supplement the diet. Dietary ingredients may include vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and substances such as enzymes, organ tissues, and metabolites. Dietary supplements come in many forms, including extracts, concentrates, tablets, capsules, gel caps, liquids, and powders. Dietary supplements are considered to be foods and not drugs. Massage: Therapists manipulate muscle and connective tissue to enhance function of those tissues and promote relaxation and well-being. 78  List of reference A. Chevallier; “The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants”, DA publishing Inc., London; 1st edition, (1996). B. P. Jackson, and D. W. Snowdon; “Atlas of microscopy of medicinal plants, Culinary herbs and spices”, Belhaven Press, A division of Pinter publishers, London; 1st edition, (1990). M. Ali; “Textbook of Pharmacognosy”, CBS Publisher & Distributors; 2nd edition, (2019). T. E. Wallis; “Textbook of Pharmacognosy”, New Delhi: CBS, Published by CBS & Distributors Pvt. Ltd; 5th edition, (2005). W. C. Evans; “Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy”, edited by William C. Evans, Elsevier; 16th edition, (2009).