Botany Chapter on Bark Formation

Subterranean Organs

• Subterranean stems include rhizomes, corms, stem tubers and bulbs
• Subterranean roots include roots and root tubers
• Functions include anchoring, nutrient/water absorption, and storage
• Subterranean stems lack chlorophyll, bear scale leaves, axillary buds, and adventitious roots
• Rhizomes are the most important subterranean stem for medicinal value.
• Rhizome structures include nodes, internodes, terminal buds, and axillary buds
• Corm is a short, swollen, erect underground stem covered with brown scale leaves
• Stem tuber is a swollen underground stem (usually the tip), and differs from a root tuber in having small scales, buds, and terminal buds.
• Bulbs are reduced underground stems that are small, flattened discs that have fleshy scale leaves or scale leaf bases

Chapters 1-5 Topics

• Chapter 1: Subterranean organs: Introduction, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic, Colchicum, Ipecacuanha, Krameria, Rhubarb, Valerian, White Squill, Liquorice, Dioscorea, Senega, Echinacea, Jalap. (Pages 1-32)
• Chapter 2: Bark: Introduction, Cascara and Frangula, Quillaia, Wild Cherry, Hamamelis, Cinchona, Pomegranate, Cinnamon, Cassia, and Canella. (Pages 33-64)
• Chapter 3: Wood: Introduction, Quassia, Guaiacum, and Sandalwood. (Pages 58-64)
• Chapter 4: Unorganized Drugs: Introduction, Gum Acacia and 2. Gum Tragacanth, Colophony, Myrrh, Aloe, Agar, Opium, Cantharides, Cochineal, and Animal Origin. (Pages 64-78)
• Chapter 5: Pharmacognostical features. (Pages 77-78)

Ginger

• Origin: Dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, Zingiberaceae.
• Characteristics: Pungent, slightly lemony taste
• Active constituents: Oleoresin (volatile oil attached with resin), including zingiberene, gingerol (pungent), and shogaol (acidic and irritant).
• Starch: up to 50%
• Confirmatory test: Boiling powder with KOH destroys pungency.
• Medicinal uses: Anti-aging, antiemetic, antiseptic, circulatory stimulant, respiratory conditions.
• Contraindications: Avoid during pregnancy due to possible muscle contractions & abortion.

Turmeric

• Origin: Dried rhizomes of Curcuma domestica, Zingiberacae.
• Characteristics: Yellow coloring matter, colors saliva yellow when chewed.
• Active constituents: Volatile oil (zingiberene, turmerone), curcumin (coloring principle)
• Confirmatory Test: Mixed powder with conc. H2SO4/95% alcohol, and add acid or alkali to turmeric paper.
• Medicinal Uses: Effect of curcumin on liver and bile, strengthening of antibacterial effects in skin conditions, powerful anti-inflammatory agent, lowers cholesterol and anticoagulation.

Garlic

• Origin: Fresh or dried bulbs of Allium sativum, Liliaceae.
• Active constituents: High concentration of inactive sulfur-containing compounds (alliin), converted to allicin upon crushing.
• Medicinal uses: Antibiotic, Antidiabetic/hypoglycemic, antioxidant, remedy for Cardiovascular diseases (hypolipidemic, hypocholesterolemia, antihypertensive, antiplatelet aggregation), and used to halt blood bleeding before surgery.
• Contraindications: Should be stopped before surgical operations and dental extractions.

Colchicum

• Origin: Sliced corms of Colchicum autumnale, Liliaceae.
• Active constituents: Colchicine (highly toxic plant hormone), Flavonoids.
• Confirmatory test: Mayer's test and KOH test for Flavonoids that give cream white precipitate and yellow color, respectively.
• Medicinal Uses: Relief of acute gout pain.
• Precautions: Highly toxic.

Ipecacuanha

• Origin: Dried root and rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha, Rubiaceae.
• Active constituents: Isoquinoline alkaloids (emetine, cephaeline, psychotrine), tannins.
• Confirmatory test: Powder Ipeca + HCl + H₂O, Filter, + potassium Chlorate.
• Medicinal uses: expectorant in bronchitis and whooping cough, emetic drug to stimulate vomiting, amebic dysentery treatment.

Krameria

• Origin: Dried roots of Krameria triandra, Krameriaceae.
• Active constituents: Tannins (phlobaphene), benzofurans (Rhataniaphenols).
• Confirmatory test: Heat powder → colorless droplets, then add FeCl3 → faint red color.
• Medicinal uses: Astringent for diarrhea and dysentery, good mouthwash, treating hemorrhoids, wounds, and varicose veins.

Rhubarb

• Origin: Dried rhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatum/officinale, Polygonaceae.
• Characteristics: Brownish yellow powder, shows longitudinal reddish brown lines, gritty when chewed.
• Active constituents: Anthraquinones, tannins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, calcium oxalate, starch.
• Confirmatory tests: Borntrager's tests (free anthraquinones) and Modified Borntrager's tests (combined anthraquinones) to give rose red color, and FeCl3 test to give blue color.
• Medicinal uses: Regulates intestine function, laxative in constipation, astringent in diarrhea.

Others

• Valerian: Rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officinalis, Valerianaceae. Active constituents: Iridoid glycosides (valepotriates) and volatile oil. Medicinal uses: CNS depressant, sedative, and relaxant for stress-related disorders.
• White Squill: Dried sliced fleshy scales of Urginia maritima, Liliaceae. Active constituents: Cardiac glycosides (scillaren A), flavonoids, mucilage (callose), and sinistrin. Medicinal Uses: Expectorant in chronic bronchitis, in small doses causes GIT irritation, used in the treatment of heart failure.
• Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): Dried peeled/unpeeled roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Leguminosae. Active constituents: Triterpene saponin (glycyrrhizin), flavonoids. Medicinal uses: Demulcent and expectorant, treatment of rheumatism and inflammatory conditions, sweetener, peptic and duodenal ulcer, anti-inflammatory for ulcers, treatment of respiratory disorders and chronic hepatitis.
• Dioscorea (Wild Yam): Dried roots and rhizomes of Dioscorea villosa, Dioscoreaceae. Active constituents: Steroidal saponins (mainly dioscin), phytosterols, starch. Medicinal Uses: Anti-inflammatory, treatment of arthritis and rheumatism, relieves cramps.
• Senega: Dried root and root-stock of Polygala senega, Polygalaceae. Active constituents: Triterpenoid saponins (senegins), phenolic acids, methyl salicylate, polygalitol. Medicinal uses: Expectorant, antiphlogistic (treats fever), and relief from inflammation.
• Echinacea: Dried rhizomes and roots of Echinacea angustifolia/purpurea, Asteraceae. Active constituents: Alkylamides, caffeic acid esters (mainly echinacoside & cynarin), polysaccharides (including Echinacin B), and volatile oil. Medicinal uses: Stimulates the immune system and has anti-inflammatory properties.
• Jalap: Dried roots of Ipomea purga, Convolvulaceae. Active constituents: Resin (convolvulin). Medicinal uses: Powerful cathartic to stimulate elimination of watery stool; in larger doses, it causes vomiting.

Wood

• Wood: All portions of the axis of woody plants inside the vascular cambium, composed of secondary xylem.
• Sapwood: The outer layer of wood, pale in color, contains living cells with reserved food that can be attacked by microorganisms and is involved in support and conduction.
• Heartwood: The inner layer of wood, dark in color, composed of dead cells, lacks food, and contains resins, tannins, coloring matters, and active constituents and functions for support only.

Unorganized Drugs

• Unorganized drugs are crude drugs of plants or animals with no distinct structure and are mixtures of chemical substances or decomposition products.
• Types of unorganized drugs include gums, resins, resin combinations, juices, extracts, and latices.
• Gums are amorphous, translucent solids that are insoluble in alcohol and organic solvents, swell in water to a jelly-like mass, and consist of polysaccharides.
• Resins are solid, amorphous substances exuded by plants; usually, they are insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol and chloroform.

Guaiacum, Sandalwood, Quillaia, and Wild Cherry

• Guaiacum: Dried wood of Guaiacum officinale and Guaiacum sanctum. Active constituents include resin acids. Medicinal uses include remedies for arthritic and rheumatic conditions.
• Sandalwood: Dried heartwood of Santalum album. Active constituents include essential oil. Medicinal uses include genito-urinary tract stimulant, diuretic, and usage in perfumery.
• Quillaia: Dried inner bark of Quillaia saponaria. Active constituents are triterpenoid saponins. Medicinal uses are limited to external applications as an antidandruff agent, for treating skin ulcers and as a foaming agent.
• Wild Cherry: Dried stem inner bark of Prunus serotina. Active constituents include cyanogenic glycoside, prunasin and tannins. Medicinal uses include relief from cough and asthma.

Important Notes

• These notes cover a large quantity of information. It is recommended to focus on the specific topics, drugs, and details you need for a particular exam or study goal.