Personology from Individual to Ecosystem PDF

 Pearson South Africa (Pty) Ltd 4th Floor, Auto Atlantic, Corner Hertzog Boulevard and Heerengracht, Cape Town, 8001 za.pearson.com Copyright © Pearson South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publicatio...

 Pearson South Africa (Pty) Ltd 4th Floor, Auto Atlantic, Corner Hertzog Boulevard and Heerengracht, Cape Town, 8001 za.pearson.com Copyright © Pearson South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Fifth edition first published in 2017 ISBN: 9781928330967 (print book) ISBN: 9781776100590 (epdf) Publisher: Silvia Raninger Managing editor: Ulla Schüler Editor: Elmarie van der Riet Proofreader: Kim van Besouw Indexer: Ellen du Toit Book design: Candice Gemmell Cover design: Candice Gemmell Typesetting: Baseline Publishing Services Printed by: In line with Pearson’s editorial policy this book has been blind peer reviewed. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders. The publishers apologise for any errors or omissions, and invite copyright holders to contact us if any have occurred, so that they maybe credited. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 2 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Contents About the authors................................................................................................. iv Preface.................................................................................................................. v Timeline: A chronological positioning of the theories......................................... viii Part 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Personology...................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2 Historical overview of psychological thinking................................. 20 Part 2 Introduction to Part 2: Depth psychological approaches 38 Chapter 3 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)........... 47 Chapter 4 The analytical theory of Carl Jung (1875–1961)............................... 91 Chapter 5 The individual psychology of Alfred Adler (1870–1937)................ 126 Chapter 6 The socially-oriented psychoanalytical theories............................. 153 Chapter 7 The ego-psychological theory of Erik Erikson (1902–1994)............ 190 Chapter 8 The language-oriented theory of Jacques Lacan (1901–1981)........ 220 Part 3 Introduction to Part 3: Behavioural and learning theory approaches 254 Chapter 9 The radical behaviourism of Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990)................................................................................. 264 Chapter 10 The social cognitive learning approach......................................... 290 Part 4 Introduction to Part 4: Person-oriented approaches 324 Chapter 11 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)..... 335 Chapter 12 The self-concept theory of Carl Rogers (1902–1987)..................... 362 Chapter 13 The personal construct theory of George Kelly (1905–1967)......... 401 Chapter 14 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl (1905–1997)....................... 430 Part 5 Introduction to Part 5: Socially contextualised approaches 462 Chapter 15 The ecosystemic approach............................................................ 467 Chapter 16 Eastern perspectives...................................................................... 506 Chapter 17 African perspectives...................................................................... 542 Bibliography...................................................................................................... 571 Index................................................................................................................. 607 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 3 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  iv About the authors About the authors Andrea Hurst is an Associate Professor in Philosophy at Nelson Mandela University. Her research interests are focused on bringing complexity-thinking in philosophy into contact with other disciplines, leading to the publication of a book entitled Derrida vis-á-vis Lacan: Interweaving Deconstruction and Psychoanalysis. She has also published scholarly articles that further examine the interfaces between philosophy and psychoanalytics. Werner Meyer is an Emeritus Professor in Psychology and former Dean of the Faculty of Arts of the University of South Africa. His fields of speciality are personality theories, theoretical and conceptual systems of psychology, and development psychology. Cora Moore is an Emeritus Professor in Psychology at the University of South Africa. Her fields of speciality are personality theories, counselling skills, student empowerment, ecosystemic therapy and logotherapy. Desmond Painter is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at Stellenbosch University. His interests include theoretical psychology, critical social psychology and qualitative research methods. He has co-edited three books, published scholarly articles and chapters on topics like the history of psychology in South Africa, the social psychology of language, and racism. He also regularly writes opinion pieces and book reviews for the popular media. Teria Shantall extended her training as a clinical psychologist at the Tavistock Clinic in London and studied logotherapy with the late Dr Viktor Frankl at the United States International University in San Diego. She is a qualified Logotherapist, holding a Diplomate Clinician credential in Logotherapy. She presently heads the training courses in Logotherapy in South Africa, Israel and Turkey. She is President of the Viktor Frankl Institute for Logotherapy in South Africa and also held the position of Vice-President of the Association for Logotherapy in Israel. Her courses in Logotherapy are accredited by the Viktor Frankl Institute for Logotherapy of the United States of America and by the Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy and Existential Analysis in Vienna. Henning Viljoen is an Emeritus Professor in Psychology at the University of South Africa. His fields of speciality are personality theories, psychology of religion, and social and intercultural psychology. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 4 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Preface v PREFACE Fifth edition The authors are grateful that the previous editions of this book were so well received that the textbook was prescribed at several South African universities and colleges and that it was considered necessary to produce a fifth edition. Cora Moore and Henning Viljoen were the main authors for the fifth edition, with Teria Shantall, Desmond Painter and Andrea Hurst contributing in their special fields of expertise. Although Werner Meyer was not involved in this edition, he did contribute to the original material and the ‘Meyer, Moore, Viljoen book’ has become such a ‘brand name’ over nearly thirty years, that we kept it as such. The content Personology as a field of study forms such an integral part of psychology and is so tightly interwoven with the historical development of psychology as a subject, that nearly every other terrain of psychology is linked with it. It was therefore highly important to produce a book that would cover the broadest possible spectrum of approaches, in order to cater for the needs of a diverse population of readers. Some of the older approaches had to be included despite their current lack of prominence, because the terminology and ideas associated with these approaches still influence psychological thinking today. In terms of a user analysis, it was decided to omit the theory of James Hillman and to update the historical overview to include 21st century thinking and in particular to update the approaches/ perspectives included in the last part of the book, i.e., the ecosystemic approach, the Eastern perspective and the African perspective. The Lacan chapter was completely rewritten. The presentation It is our objective in this book, as was the case in the previous editions, to provide clear explanations of personality theories, particularly with undergraduate as well as postgraduate students in South Africa in mind. New literature and insights, as well as references to websites and videos were added to enhance learning. Effective methods of highlighting, colour and text layout were used to add to the quality of the presentation and to enhance the user experience. This edition is presented in an outcomes-based dialogical style. The expected outcomes are stated at the beginning of each chapter and self-evaluation questions and activities are included in the text to enhance the interaction of the reader with the text. The self-evaluation questions are aimed at testing the knowledge and understanding gained through the interaction with the text. The activities are offered to allow the reader to participate and to make the text personally relevant. The examples and case studies are offered to illustrate the relevance of the theory for everyday life experiences. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 5 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  vi Preface The dialogical style is achieved by posing questions and offering the text as explanations to these questions. The text has, in some cases, been simplified and clarified and special care has been taken to ensure gender and cultural equality and to take readers with different sexual orientations into consideration. Enrichment sections are offered as interesting additions to the main text. An evaluation of the theory and a list of suggested readings are provided for each chapter. The new edition contains new artwork, illustrations and photographs that should be of particular value in making the text ‘come alive’. A date outline is provided at the beginning of the book in order to indicate the position of a particular theorist within the historical timeframe and within a particular approach. The explanations of key terms are now offered alongside the text. This is done to accommodate the fact that similar concepts/terms are used differently by different theorists and therefore need to be contextualised. Methodological approach Besides the conceptual systems as such, we attempt to explain the underlying assumptions and thought patterns of the theorists. We also try to convey accurately the implications and applications of each theory for practical aspects of psychology as well as for everyday living. This should enhance the utility value of the book for all students of Psychology as well as laypeople, as personality theories are a rich source of practical wisdom. The implications for the interpretation and handling of aggression are included in each chapter. This is done, not only because it is a relevant topic for the world we live in, but also to alert students to the fact that different perspectives can contribute to a better understanding of a specific topic or theme. Attention is given to research, particularly recent, relevant South African research, and emphasis is placed on the historical development of the broad approaches and the way in which the theories within an approach are linked. The introductions to each part of the book provide a contextual framework within which the theories or perspectives can be studied. The author and subject indexes should make it easier for the reader to find specific information. Teacher and learner support material The lecturer/tutor and student support material previously accompanied the book in the form of a CD. This material was extended to include more questions and answers and to provide links to relevant websites and videos. The support material can now be accessed on the Pearson e-site and the Learning Management System (LMS) of universities. We trust that this material will be of value to teachers and students. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 6 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Preface vii Revision of the fourth edition: Acknowledgements The aim of this edition was to update the material and to bring it into line with the requirements of students in the technologically advanced era. This held tremendous challenges for ‘old’ authors and we wish to thank all those who helped us in this process most sincerely – especially our partners and friends who had to not only provide expert help, but also moral support. We are very grateful to Desmond Painter for updating the African perspectives chapter and also for adding insights into 21st century thinking in Psychology. Thank you Desmond, your excellent contributions definitely add to the value of the book. Thank you too to Andrea Hurst who brought a breath of fresh air to the Lacan chapter. Thanks again to our long-standing co-author Teria Shantall for updating the Frankl chapter. She is internationally renowned in this field and it shows. Our sincere thanks to the whole team at Pearson for their various contributions. We asked for an elegant look and design and you succeeded magnificently! The permissions process was a nightmare... How you slogged through it with utter determination was a marvel – thank you. And thank you to Elmarie van der Riet for the meticulous editing. Thank you to Silvia Raninger who, when we wanted to bail out, kept on believing in the book and said: “We will do it, it will be beautiful and it will sell!” We did it, the book is indeed beautiful and the fact that you are reading this proves that it is selling! Cora Moore and Henning Viljoen December 2016 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 7 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  viii Timeline: A chronological positioning of the theories Timeline: A chronological positioning of the theories 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 PART 1: Introduction PART 2: Depth psychological approaches 3 Freud (1856–1939) 4 Jung (1875–1961) 5 Adler (1870–1937) 6 Horney (1885–1952) 6 Fromm (1900–1980) 7 Erikson (1902–1994) 8 Lacan (1901–1981) PART 3: Behavioural and learning theory approaches 9 Skinner (1904–1990) 10 Rotter (1916 –2014) 10 Bandura (1925– 10 Mischel (1930– PART 4: Person-oriented approaches 11 Maslow (1908–1970) 12 Rogers (1902–1987) 13 Kelly (1905–1967) 14 Frankl (1905–1997) PART 5: Socially contextualised approaches 15 Ecosystemic approach 16 Eastern perspectives 17 African perspectives 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 8 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  PART 1 Introduction PLACEHOLDER IMAGE Contents Chapter 1: Personology....................... 3 Chapter 2: Historical overview of psychological thinking.... 20 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 1 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1 Personology Werner Meyer and Cora Moore The chapter at a glance 1.1 Outcomes.................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Background................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Personology and everyday knowledge of human nature............................. 5 1.4 The reasons why there are so many personality theories............................. 7 1.4.1 The complexity of humans and their behaviour.............................. 7 1.4.2 Practical and ethical problems in research..................................... 7 1.4.3 The large variety of assumptions concerning the person and scientific research.......................................................................... 8 1.5 Definitions of key concepts........................................................................ 8 1.5.1 Person............................................................................................ 9 1.5.2 Personality..................................................................................... 9 1.5.3 Some related concepts................................................................. 10 Character..................................................................................... 10 Temperament and nature.............................................................. 11 Self............................................................................................... 11 1.6 A variety of opinions about personality.................................................... 11 1.6.1 Personality, situation and behaviour............................................. 12 Personism.................................................................................... 12 Situationalism.............................................................................. 12 Interactionalism........................................................................... 13 1.6.2 Personality theories: A systematic overview.................................. 14 Depth psychological approaches................................................. 15 Behavioural and learning theoretical approaches......................... 15 Person-oriented approaches......................................................... 15 Socially-contextualised approaches.............................................. 16 1.7 A closer look at personality theories......................................................... 16 1.7.1 Background.................................................................................. 17 1.7.2 The view of the person underlying the theory............................... 17 1.7.3 The structure of the personality.................................................... 17 1.7.4 The dynamics of the personality................................................... 18 1.7.5 The development of the personality.............................................. 18 1.7.6 Optimal development.................................................................. 18 1.7.7 Views on psychopathology.......................................................... 18 1.7.8 Implications and applications....................................................... 19 1.7.9 The interpretation and handling of aggression.............................. 19 1.7.10 Evaluation of the theory............................................................... 19 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 3 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  4 Part 1: Introduction 1.1 Outcomes Understand why personology is an extension of our everyday knowledge of human nature. Explain why there are so many personality theories. Define key concepts such as ‘person’, ‘personality’, ‘character’, ‘temperament’, ‘self’, ‘personism’, ‘situationalism’ and ‘interactionalism’. Understand how the content of the book is organised into the different parts and within each chapter. 1.2 Background Why study personology? Personology is a subject that everyone knows something about. Because we KEY TERM all have implicit ideas or theories about how humans function, we may all, in personology: the branch of psychology that focuses a sense, be called personologists. However, we do not really know enough about on the study of the this fascinating subject because we all make mistakes in the predictions of our own individual’s characteristics behaviour and that of others, and in the way we approach our fellow human beings. and of differences Our acquaintances often surprise us and make us realise that our theories about between people people and their functioning are not always correct. This is clearly illustrated when people discuss a person whom they all know well and find, to their amazement, that they all have different ideas about the person. For that matter, our own behaviour often makes us realise how little we know about ourselves! The incompleteness of our knowledge about the forces that control behaviour results in different opinions about the nature of human behaviour and what motivates it. This diversity is apparent, for example, among a group of mothers discussing child-rearing practices, or farmers talking about how to treat their farm labourers, or a group of teachers debating the appointment of new school prefects. If the average person has so many different ideas and opinions about human functioning, then it can be expected that psychologists, whose task it is to find explanations for human functioning through detailed research, will also hold widely divergent views. The aim of this book is to provide a systematic overview of the most important psychological theories about human functioning. This field of study, which is known as personality psychology or personology, can be of great benefit since it allows us to re-examine our thinking about human functioning, and could very well leave us with a better understanding of our own and others’ functioning. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 4 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 5 1.3 Personology and everyday knowledge of human nature Since personology can be regarded as a kind of extension of our everyday knowledge about human nature, what exactly is the difference between everyday knowledge of human nature and personology? Although everyone has this kind of knowledge, not everyone develops it to the same degree. Some people are notorious for their poor understanding of other people because they invariably say and do the wrong things at the wrong time, while others understand people so well that they sometimes seem to be able to read their minds. However, closer investigation usually reveals that even those who are considered good judges of people have only limited abilities. They understand certain people – usually those who are similar to themselves – better than others, or their knowledge is limited to specific types of situations. Regardless of our level of understanding, our ability to judge people depends mainly on four sources of information, namely cultural tradition, direct communications from others, observation of others’ behaviour and self-observation. Cultural tradition is an especially rich source of information. Novels, dramas, songs, expressions and idioms contain much information and wisdom about the nature of people. The expression ‘The devil finds work for idle hands’ is just one example. (This expression maintains that boredom leads people into mischief.) Furthermore, in each social group there are opinions and stereotypes about people in general, and ideas about the characteristics of certain types of people. There is, for example, the stereotype that all redheads are quick-tempered. Astrology, which is most often disseminated to the public in articles entitled The stars and you, is to a large extent an assembly of cultural stereotypes about people. This type of knowledge, however, is not always reliable, as it is unsystematic, inaccurate, contradictory and at times simply wrong. Example Maje Malepe may be a successful salesman because he is able to predict what most people will buy and knows how to influence their buying habits, yet he may be unable to persuade his children to apply themselves to their studies. The same applies to the other three sources of knowledge. When one talks to people about how they see others and themselves, one can never be sure how reliable, accurate and honest they are. Our observations of others’ behaviour as well as of our own are also incomplete, unsystematic and often inaccurate, especially as they are heavily coloured by our own subjective judgement and bias. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 5 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  6 Part 1: Introduction Definition Personology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the individual’s characteristics and of differences between people. It therefore covers essentially the same ground as everyday knowledge of human nature, namely those abilities that enable us to say that we know someone well. Personologists aim at improving such everyday knowledge about people by KEY TERM basing their theories on scientific methods. Personology may therefore be described everyday knowledge of human nature: the ability as the formal scientific counterpart of our informal knowledge of human nature to judge, understand, (Jordaan, 1993). explain and predict behaviour of fellow The most comprehensive elements of personology are to be found in the form of human beings personality theories, which are the specific subject of this book. Definition A personality theory is the outcome of a purposeful, sustained effort to develop a logically consistent conceptual system for describing, explaining and/or predicting human behaviour. The particular nature and purpose of this conceptual handling of human functioning differs from theory to theory, but it usually includes several of the following: an underlying view of the person certain proposals about the structure of personality and about how this structure functions ideas about what motivates human behaviour a description of human development and propositions about ideal human development reflections on the nature and causes of behavioural problems or psychopathology an explanation of how human behaviour might be controlled and possibly changed ideas about how to study, measure and predict behaviour. Most personality theories have been developed by psychotherapists, mainly on KEY TERM the basis of their rich experience with a wide variety of clients. Some theories, personality theory: the however, have emerged from extensive research involving the systematic study outcome of a purposeful, sustained effort to develop of a large number of ‘normal’ people. But in both cases, personologists make a a logically consistent thorough study of existing theories and research, and then try to improve the conceptual system for basis on which explanations of behaviour are made by reducing or eliminating describing, explaining gaps in existing theories. In addition, they constantly check their own theories and/or predicting human against further observation and research and improve them wherever possible. It is behaviour reasonable to expect, then, that a personality theory can provide a better and more complete explanation of human behaviour than common sense can. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 6 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 7 Activity Watch someone in a shop who is looking to buy something, for example a cell phone. Test your everyday knowledge of human nature by predicting which phone he or she will choose. Go home and write a report on how adequate your everyday knowledge was in predicting the behaviour. Write down the personality characteristics of someone you know well on the basis of your everyday knowledge of human nature. You could describe the same person again after you have finished studying an additional personality theory, and note how your newly gained knowledge influences your perception of the person’s characteristics. 1.4 The reasons why there are so many personality theories Why are there so many personality theories? The many textbooks on personality theories reveal that there are more than thirty different theories, each of which has its own supporters and is studied worldwide. While this clearly shows that there is a profound interest in the subject, it also suggests that we are still far from proclaiming a ‘correct’ or generally acceptable description and explanation of human functioning. There are also other reasons for the great diversity of theories, a few of which will now be considered. 1.4.1 The complexity of humans and their behaviour Human behaviour is a highly complex phenomenon that is determined by a wide range of interdependent factors such as biological factors; environmental circumstances; social factors such as other people’s expectations; social milieu; culture; and psychological and spiritual factors such as emotions, religious convictions, values and goals. A complete description and explanation of behaviour would only be possible on the basis of a thorough understanding of all the factors which determine behaviour, including the complex ways in which these factors interact with one another. The complexity of human functioning could be likened to a multi-faceted diamond, with each personality theory highlighting but one of the many facets. Each personality theory therefore represents one possible explanation of human functioning as seen through the eyes of a particular personologist/theorist. A particular theory cannot provide the whole ‘truth’, but can contribute towards a better understanding of human functioning as a whole. 1.4.2 Practical and ethical problems in research In order to conduct the type of research that would ultimately resolve the differences between the divergent theoretical viewpoints (Maddi, 1996), a researcher would have to investigate and manipulate every aspect of a large group 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 7 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  8 Part 1: Introduction of people and their environments over a long period of time. One of the perennial controversies of personology, namely whether people are essentially motivated by sexual and aggressive drives (as Freud maintained) or by the will to find meaning in life (as Frankl believed), could be investigated experimentally. For example, people could be subjected, for lengthy periods of time, to severe hunger, thirst, sexual abstinence, and prolonged isolation and cruelty – similar to conditions in a concentration camp – in order to observe their reactions. Such research is, of course, impossible to carry out owing to practical and ethical considerations, so the personologist has to confine his or her research to random studies of people. Where controlled research studies do occur, they are still subject to limitations such as the size and representativeness of the sample, the duration of the study and the variety of behavioural phenomena that could be included in the study. 1.4.3 The large variety of assumptions concerning the person and scientific research Another reason for the great number of personality theories is that there are many pre-scientific convictions about what humans are and about what science is, and the various personality theories are based on different assumptions concerning these matters. Since assumptions are convictions that are not based on scientific facts, it is extremely difficult to change them, especially in this field where it is already so difficult to find concrete evidence for anything. To understand the various theories and to gain insight into the areas of agreement and disagreement between them, it is of the utmost importance to understand the assumptions upon which they are based. The basic assumptions that underlie each of the theories are discussed in the introductory paragraphs of each chapter. Self-evaluation question The fact that there are many different personality theories can be explained in various ways. What do you regard as the most important reasons for this variety? 1.5 Definitions of key concepts Which key concepts are basic to the study of personology? Although most of the basic concepts in personology, such as person, personality, character and temperament, form part of our everyday language, personologists endow these concepts with specific meanings that do not always correspond with their everyday usage. It is important, therefore, to investigate their precise meaning and how they relate to one another. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 8 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 9 1.5.1 Person The word person apparently originally referred to the mask that actors wore in KEY TERM Roman times. (‘Personare’ literally means to ‘sound through’ and is thought to person: an individual refer to the voice of the actor emerging from behind the mask.) In modern usage, human being who can act independently however, the term refers to the individual human being. Viewed superficially, the word is almost synonymous with ‘individual’ and ‘human being’. When analysed more closely, however, a subtle connotational difference emerges. ‘Person’ is more than a mere reference to an individual human being as the idea also implies independence of behaviour. In everyday language, we would not normally refer to a newborn as a person, although we would not hesitate to call it a human being. This meaning is found particularly in legal terminology, where a legal person refers to an individual or a group of individuals, such as a corporation or a society, which can function independently. In psychological jargon the word ‘person’ is generally used in the same way as it is used in colloquial language and can thus be defined for our purposes as follows: Definition Person refers to an individual human being who can act independently. This definition, especially the reference to independence of action, clearly implies an acknowledgement of the capacity for free decision-making. A non-deterministic view of the person such as this, however, is not shared by all personologists, and it is interesting to note that deterministic personologists like Skinner avoided using the word ‘person’ altogether and simply described people as ‘organisms’. 1.5.2 Personality Since the word personality is used in various ways in everyday language, it is KEY TERM necessary to analyse these different meanings to avoid confusion. personality: the constantly changing but nevertheless relatively stable Firstly, in everyday language, personality is often used to describe the individual’s organisation of all physical, social dimension. Someone said to have a strong personality could be someone psychological and spiritual who can use his or her influence or who impresses people easily. In psychological characteristics of the jargon, ‘personality’ is not used in this sense. individual that determine his or her behaviour in Secondly, personality is used in colloquial language to refer to someone’s general interaction with the context behaviour patterns or his or her nature. Predictions are therefore sometimes made about someone’s behaviour on the basis of his or her personality, or we say that some action on the part of an acquaintance confuses us because the behaviour does not fit in with the person’s personality. This usage of the word conforms more closely to the way the word ‘personology’ is used here. In personology, the word ‘personality’ refers to whatever it is that makes people who they are; in other words, that which allows us to make predictions about a 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 9 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  10 Part 1: Introduction given person’s behaviour, or the basis on which we can say that we know someone well. We can thus say that personality is the totality of all the physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics that determine the behaviour of an individual. Different theorists, however, have different views about exactly what kind of characteristics determine the person’s behaviour. Behaviourists, for example, would not acknowledge spiritual attributes as being determinants of behaviour. In fact, an extreme behaviourist like Skinner avoids the use of the word ‘personality’ altogether, and would accordingly not be in agreement with the discussion that follows. Note: Before we attempt a more formal definition of personality, a few important observations are in order: We should note that people show little or no change in some respect, while they are changing continually in other respects. A meeting between long-standing friends after a long separation will illustrate this. Some characteristics are relatively unchanged, and it is on the basis of these that the friends are able to recognise one another. But in many respects the friends will certainly have changed. It must be noted that an individual’s characteristics do not exist or function in isolation. The person’s attributes are integrated with one another in a complex way, so that they influence one another constantly. Even in a case where we could assume that two people are equally intelligent, for example, they will nevertheless reach different levels of academic achievement depending on their motivation, perseverance, interest and the extent of their involvement in other activities. It should be borne in mind that people always function in an environment with particular physical, social and cultural features, and that this context co- determines their behaviour. All of us know how the behaviour of our friends may vary, depending on the circumstances and who else is present, and the same applies to our own behaviour as well. Taking all of this into account, we can now define personality as follows: Definition Personality is the constantly changing but nevertheless relatively stable organisation of all physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics of the individual which determine his or her behaviour in interaction within the context in which the individual finds himself or herself. 1.5.3 Some related concepts To avoid confusion, ‘personality’ must be distinguished from a few related concepts. Character KEY TERM A concept that is often confused with personality is character. This term was character: those aspects of the personality involving used as a synonym for personality in psychological literature until about 1920, the person’s values and the subject that we now call ‘personality psychology’ or ‘personology’, was 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 10 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 11 known as characterology. In current psychological terminology, however, the word ‘character’ has a narrower meaning and it refers only to those aspects of the personality involving the person’s values, and his or her ability to behave consistently in congruence with his or her values. It therefore has a narrower meaning than ‘personality’ as it refers more specifically to the spiritual and moral dimensions of the person. In current usage, when we say that the behaviour of a person does not fit in with his or her character, we mean that the behaviour concerned does not fit in with the person’s own ethical standards. When we say that the behaviour does not fit in with the person’s personality, then the meaning is broader. We mean simply that the behaviour is not congruent with the person’s usual behavioural patterns. Temperament and nature The words temperament and nature are also used to describe people in KEY TERM expressions such as ‘He has a fiery nature’, or ‘She is a temperamental actress’. temperament/nature: emotional aspects of the Both these words refer more specifically to people’s emotions and the way in personality which they express them and deal with them. Both thus have a narrower meaning than ‘personality’, in that they focus on the more emotional aspects of a person’s biological and psychological dimensions. ‘Temperament’, ‘nature’ and ‘character’ are different concepts, however, in that the first two refer to the inherited, biological aspects of the person, whereas ‘character’ refers to elements determined by socialisation and education, namely, the person’s moral attributes and values. Self A term which is frequently used in psychology and often creates confusion is the word ‘self’. It is, however, used in so many different ways that it is not possible to provide a single definition (Plug, Meyer, Louw & Gouws, 1986). It is sometimes used to refer to people’s views of themselves (Rogers, 1951); at other times it is a synonym for personality (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1984); sometimes it refers to the core of personality (Jung, 1959); and sometimes it refers to many other aspects of the personality. Since the term is used in so many different ways in the various personality theories, further explanations will be given within the contexts of the relevant theories. Self-evaluation question What do the concepts person, personality, character and temperament mean in psychology? Pay attention to similarities and differences between the concepts. 1.6 A variety of opinions about personality Views of personality vary tremendously, and there is an equal range of opinion as to the precise nature of the interaction between personality and a given situation. Since the divergent nature of these opinions can be quite confusing, it is useful to have a systematic overview of the various viewpoints at the outset. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 11 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  12 Part 1: Introduction KEY TERMS 1.6.1 Personality, situation and behaviour personism: the view that Although all psychologists would probably agree that while both the individual’s behaviour is influenced personality and the situation in which people find themselves influence their chiefly by the individual’s behaviour, there are differences of opinion as to exactly what role is played by personality each of these aspects. Some psychologists emphasise the role of the person, others situationalism: the accentuate the situation and a third group focuses on the interaction between the view that the situation is the most important two. For the sake of convenience, these three viewpoints are termed personism determinant of behaviour (not to be confused with personalism, which refers to a holistic approach to the interactionalism: the person), situationalism and interactionalism. view that behaviour is the outcome of the interaction Personism between the individual’s According to this viewpoint, behaviour is influenced chiefly by the individual’s characteristics and the situation in which the personality. Protagonists of this approach maintain that individuals have certain fixed behaviour occurs characteristics or behavioural tendencies that distinguish them from each other. If someone has more of a particular characteristic than another person, a supporter of the personist view would expect the difference to be apparent in all situations. Example If, for example, Pat is more aggressive than Joan, who in turn is more aggressive than Zinzi, a personist would expect this rank order to manifest itself in all situations: Pat would always be the most aggressive, Zinzi the least, with Joan somewhere between them. When stated in such simple, somewhat exaggerated terms, personism seems rather naïve and there are probably no psychologists who adhere to such an extreme view. There are, however, some theorists who come close to this extreme overemphasis of the role of personality compared with that of the situation. This is, for example, Freud’s position when he asserts that all behaviour, including slips of the tongue and other maladaptive behaviours, are caused by unconscious drives. Freud’s viewpoint is also known as psychic determinism. In a less extreme form, this viewpoint is shared by most psychologists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is also noteworthy that the practice of psychometric testing is, to a large extent, tacitly based on the views of (unspoken) personism. The idea that a person’s characteristics can be measured in one situation, namely the test situation, and that predictions concerning his or her behaviour in other situations, such as a variety of work situations, can be made on the basis of the test results, is close to the position adopted in personism. Situationalism The view that the situation is the only or the most important determinant of behaviour developed in reaction to the somewhat extreme personism evident in the theories of Freud and his contemporaries. According to the most extreme form of situationalism, all people in the same situation would behave in the same way. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 12 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 13 Situationalism is linked to the idea that all people are equal (which means that genetic differences are denied) and that it is the environment that shapes the individual’s specific attributes. (This position is called environmental determinism.) An extreme proponent of situationalism and environmental determinism was John Watson, the father of behaviourism. He asserted that he could make anything he wanted of a healthy child if he had complete control over the environment in which the child grew up (Watson, 1924). Skinner’s extreme behaviourism also falls within this camp. Situationalism therefore maintains that different people will behave in similar ways in the same situations, and that their behaviour will vary in similar ways from one situation to another. In its extreme form, situationalism is, of course, untenable because it is perfectly evident that individuals react differently in the same situation. However, situationalists offer a simple explanation for this variation, namely that people have had different experiences in similar situations and therefore associate these situations with different past experiences. Example For example, some children have experienced success and fulfilment in the classroom, while others have experienced failure and anxiety. Therefore, they associate a classroom with different emotions and expectations. A classroom thus becomes a different situation for all children; while their individual reactions to the classroom differ, they also react in accordance with their previous experiences of the classroom situation. This implies that both the situation and the person’s characteristics play a role in determining behaviour, and this brings us to the third viewpoint, namely interactionalism. Interactionalism According to this viewpoint, behaviour is the outcome of the interaction between the individual’s characteristics and the situation in which the behaviour occurs. Example In a given situation, for example on the hockey field, Joan might display more aggression than Zinzi, and Pat might be more aggressive than both Joan and Zinzi. In a different situation, however, for example in the classroom, Joan could be more aggressive than Zinzi or Pat. In a third situation, say dealing with an intruder, they could be placed in yet another rank order of aggression. The interactional viewpoint therefore acknowledges the influence of individual differences as well as that of the situation. This simply means that different people react differently even in situations that might look the same to an outsider. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 13 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  14 Part 1: Introduction More specifically, this means that these differences in behaviour are seen as the result of both personality traits and differences in the situation itself, or in the way the situation is perceived. This point of view is found in various guises, and these are given different names. KEY TERM According to one particular form of interactionalism, namely transactionalism, transactionalism: behaviour is determined by the issues involved are even more complex than suggested earlier, as the interaction the transactions between is invariably threefold: between the person, the situation and the behaviour. The the person, the situation person reacts not only to the situation, but also to the behaviour that he himself or and the behaviour she herself produces in the situation. Example When a nervous employee is sitting in his boss’s office, the behaviour of both is constantly determined by the process of transactions that take place between them. The boss may say something to the employee and immediately realise that what she has said is ‘too threatening for this insecure man’. This may result in her changing her behaviour and saying something that sounds friendlier. Her behaviour is therefore being influenced by her perception of her own actions. This transactional viewpoint has far-reaching implications for personologists, and will be discussed in more detail when we deal with the work of Bandura. The interactional viewpoint also appears in other forms, namely as systems theory, the ecosystemic approach and the ecological approach. According to the interactional approach, humans are part of the physical, social and cultural environment, and their behaviour should be seen as the outcome of this entire system rather than as the product of the individual or of the individual in interaction with the observable, here-and-now situation. This approach, which is given detailed attention in the chapter on the ecosystemic approach, also has important implications for personology in that it maintains that the individual cannot be studied in isolation, away from his or her world. Self-evaluation question In your opinion, what has the most influence on human behaviour: the individ- ual’s personality or the situation? Pay attention to personism, situationalism and interactionalism. 1.6.2 Personality theories: A systematic overview How is the content of this book organised into the different parts and within each chapter? Because there are so many personality theories, it is useful to organise the theories into a system of some kind. Because of the complexity of the theories there are many ways to do this. In this book we have simply classified the theories according 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 14 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 15 to their historical origin or ‘schools of thought’, namely the depth psychological approaches, the behavioural and learning theoretical approaches, the person-oriented approaches and socially-contextualised approaches. These categories also provide the book with its major parts. Chapter 2 gives an historical overview of the origin and development of the different approaches, while a more comprehensive explanation of each orientation is provided in the introduction to each part of the book. The following is a brief summary, intended as an initial orientation. Depth psychological approaches Depth psychologists contend that behaviour is determined by forces within the person of which he or she is mostly unaware. These theorists, however, hold different views about the nature of the forces and the degree of conscious control that the individual can exercise over such forces. Some of these theorists, especially the earlier ones, emphasise the biological nature of the psychological forces, while others, especially the more modern ones, highlight the social nature and orientation of the psychological forces. Behavioural and learning theoretical approaches Theorists in this group have a totally different view. They emphasise the study of observable behaviour and consider learning and environmental influences to be the most important determinants of behaviour. Different theorists in this group offer various explanations for the phenomena of learning and environmental influence. Extreme behaviourists, like Skinner, contend that all behaviour and learning can be explained without any reference to needs or conscious experiences. The more modern group, comprising followers of the social cognitive learning theory approach, such as Bandura, acknowledges that learning can take place through the imitation of others, and that the individual’s cognitions play an important role in the learning process. Person-oriented approaches What the theorists in this group have in common is that they try to include and explain all aspects of the person in their theories. Person-oriented theorists view depth psychology and behaviourism as inadequate because these theories study only certain aspects of the person. Yet there are many points of difference between these theories as well, particularly with regard to identifying the overall goal of a person’s life. The existentialists, for example, hold that people direct their own lives through the ideals that they set for themselves. Rogers, however, contends that people naturally strive for the fullest development of their inherited potential, while Kelly emphasises the efforts humans make to predict events in their environment. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 15 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  16 Part 1: Introduction Socially-contextualised approaches In this section of the book we discuss some ways of thinking about human functioning where the embeddedness of the person within social contexts is emphasised. In the ecosystemic approach it is emphasised that individuals can only be understood as parts of the complex totality of more encompassing systems in which they are embedded. This approach plays a particularly important role in psychotherapy. The chapters on Eastern and African perspectives provide specific examples of how social contexts impact on human functioning. Self-evaluation question How would you summarise the essence of the approaches explained in the various parts of the book (that is, depth psychological approaches, behavioural and learning theoretical approaches, etc.) in one or two sentences? This task can be performed after having studied Chapter 1, and can be repeated when you have completed the book. 1.7 A closer look at personality theories This broad overview of personology’s field of study paves the way for a closer, more detailed look at how the individual chapters of this book are structured. Earlier on in this chapter it was stated that a personality theory is an attempt to explain individual differences according to a model of human functioning. The task of the personologist can be compared with that of a motor vehicle expert who is commissioned by the editor of a car magazine to describe and compare different types of cars. To accomplish this task, the expert needs to have a workable model of the structure and functioning of motor cars. By referring to the model, he or she can make meaningful comparisons between car X and car Y. Cars are usually compared in terms of aspects such as engine type and capacity, fuel consumption, speed, passenger space, luggage space, safety, comfort and durability. Personologists do not have such a handy and generally acceptable system of comparison at their disposal. However, although the contents of personality theories differ considerably, they do have certain characteristics in common and they all deal, more or less, with the same issues. It is thus both sensible and useful to describe and explain all the theories in terms of a common pattern, to the extent that this is possible and convenient. In this way the reader is able to compare the different views in much the same way as the car expert is able to compare different cars. A summary of the pattern that we have used in this book is set out subsequently. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 16 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 17 1.7.1 Background This introduction contains useful background information for the understanding of a particular theory. It includes the following: the historical background to the theories, biographical information about the theorists, the social and philosophical influences the theorists were subjected to, and influences arising from the theories. 1.7.2 The view of the person underlying the theory Every personality theory is based on a certain view of the person, in other words certain assumptions about the nature and existence of the person. While not all theorists make their view explicit, each of them does have a general view of the person’s nature and existence, and of the overriding direction of human life. These views are themselves embedded in an even broader worldview. For a theorist to be able to describe and explain human behaviour adequately, he or she must have certain opinions about or answers to such basic questions like ‘What is the meaning of life?’, ‘What are human beings’ primary concerns, or what is their behaviour directed towards?’ and ‘What is the human being’s place in the overall scheme of the world?’. Freud, for instance, held that a person’s behaviour is motivated by drives that are in conflict with the moral norms of society, and that behaviour is directed simultaneously at satisfying the person’s drives while avoiding guilt feelings in doing so. Rogers, by contrast, contended that people basically are good and that their behaviour is geared towards the development of their full potential. Some theorists, such as Maslow, distinguished between two or more different levels of human functioning, namely a level of need satisfaction, and a ‘higher’ level at which people strive to achieve goals of their own choosing. A theorist’s basic view of the person is one of the most interesting and important aspects of the theory as it captures the theorist’s ideas about the core of human functioning (Maddi, 1996); in other words, the theorist’s view of what is common to all people. Once we understand theorists’ underlying views of the person, we also understand their views of how all people function on a basic level. This makes it easier for us to understand how they explain other, more specific, aspects of human functioning, including individual differences. Theorists’ views of the person, therefore, not only reflect their basic philosophies of life, they also, to a large extent, determine the essence of their entire theories. 1.7.3 The structure of the personality To explain how the person functions as a whole, most theorists use certain structural concepts. They therefore present us with propositions regarding hypothetical basic units or working parts that make up the personality, and that work together in some way to produce behaviour. Personologists have various ideas about the structure of personality. Freud, for example, described three major structural elements (the id, the ego and the superego), each of which carries out specific functions; for Kelly it was enough to pinpoint only one type of structural element, namely constructs, which people use to understand their environment and to predict events. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 17 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  18 Part 1: Introduction 1.7.4 The dynamics of the personality A personality theory also has to explain what enables the personality to function or what motivates behaviour. In other words, a theory should explain the motivating energy, or what provides the drive in behaviour and how the parts ‘work together’. Here, too, there is a wide range of ideas in personality theories. Some theorists, like Jung, were content to describe only one form of psychological energy (the libido) as the basis of all behaviour, while others analysed and explained a large number of needs. Because both structural and dynamic structures are used to describe and explain certain behaviours, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish clearly between these two aspects of a theory, and in some chapters they are not dealt with separately. 1.7.5 The development of the personality As the person grows and changes constantly, most personality theories include a theory about human development. When a personality theory includes a complete developmental theory, it usually explains how the structural and dynamic aspects of the person develop and how children’s behaviour gradually changes until they reach adulthood. Personologists differ from one another regarding the factors they regard as the most important determinants of development. Another important point of difference between developmental theories relates to the question of the age at which development terminates. Freud, for example, holds that the essential aspects of the personality are completely formed by the age of six, whereas Erikson holds that the development of the personality continues throughout life. 1.7.6 Optimal development Various personality theories include a description of the ideal personality. This element of a theory is closely related to the theorist’s basic view of the person and indicates what he or she regards as optimal human development or as the full realisation of one’s life goals. Although not all theories outline specifically what optimal development entails, in most cases one can make accurate deductions about their views in this regard. 1.7.7 Views on psychopathology Most personality theories also include a theory about pathological behaviour. They explain how a psychologically-disturbed person differs from a mentally healthy person and how psychopathology develops. Some theories, for example Freud’s, were based largely on the study of deviant behaviour, and the theorists discerned little difference between disturbed and mentally healthy people. Other theories drew sharp, clear distinctions between healthy and pathological behaviour. 9781928330967_psy_ter_stb_eng_za.indb 18 2016/11/28 5:39 PM  Chapter 1: Personology 19 1.7.8 Implications and applications Because personality theories attempt to explain all aspects of human functioning and to describe, in particular, the nature and development of the healthy and the abnormal personality, they clearly have important implications for psychology as a