Communicative English LCE1113 Notes July/August 2024 PDF

COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH LCE1113 TRIMESTER JULY/AUGUST 2024 (TERM 2420) NOTES Reading Grammar Writing Chapter 4: Listening & Speaking ...

COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH LCE1113 TRIMESTER JULY/AUGUST 2024 (TERM 2420) NOTES Reading Grammar Writing Chapter 4: Listening & Speaking  CHAPTER 1 READING AND VOCABULARY BUILDING VOCABULARY FOCUSING ON SYNONYM, ANTONYM AND HOMONYM 1. What is a Synonym? A synonym is a word or expression that has the same or almost the same meaning as another word or expression. The noun “synonym” means “equivalent words”. The word “synonym” is a composite of two Greek words: The prefix “syn” means “together” and “onoma” is “name.” In English, a language known for its enormous vocabulary, most words have synonyms. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. For example, the word “enormous” has many synonyms: huge, massive, giant, immense. ***Synonyms - together naming the same thing*** Examples and observations: "Good, excellent, superior, above par, nice, fine, choice, rare, priceless, unparagoned, unparalleled, superfine, superexcellent, of the first water, crack, prime, tip-top, gilt-edged, first- class, capital, cardinal, couleur de rose, peerless, matchless, inestimable, precious as the apple of the eye, satisfactory, fair, fresh, unspoiled, sound. GKN: over 80 companies making steel and steel products." -- (ad campaign for Guest, Keen, & Nettlefolds, Ltd., 1961) 2. What is an Antonym? An antonym is a word having a meaning opposite to that of another word. Antonym is the antonym of synonym. Antonymy is the sense relation that exists between words which are opposite in meaning. Words that are antonyms are said to be antonymous. Examples and observations: "You always pass failure on the way to success." -- (Mickey Rooney) "Some have been thought to be brave because they were afraid to run away." --(Thomas Fuller) "Every day I remind myself that my inner and outer lives are based on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving." -- (Albert Einstein) 1|Page  3. What is Homonym? Two or more words that have the same sound or spelling but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Words that are homonyms are said to be homonymic or homonymous. Generally, the term homonym refers both to homophones (words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings, such as which and witch) and to homographs (words that are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as "bow your head" and "tied in a bow"). Note that some dictionaries and textbooks define and distinguish these three terms in different ways. Some equate homonyms only with homophones (words that sound the same). Others equate homonyms only with homographs (words that look the same). Examples and observations: "The reason that there is confusion and a lack of clarity over homonym is that it is closely related to two other words, homograph and homophone. I shall, therefore, define these words first: 1) A homograph is a word that is spelt identically to another word but none the less has a different meaning and probably a different origin. You will doubtless be annoyed if you tear your trousers while climbing over a fence. Indeed, you may be so upset that you shed a tear. As you can see, 'tear' and 'tear' are spelt identically, but they are pronounced differently and have entirely different meanings. They are good examples of a homograph. Many homographs are not even pronounced differently. Thus the word 'hide' sounds exactly the same whether you are talking about the skin of an animal, a measure of land or the verb meaning to conceal or keep out of sight. 2) A homophone is a word that sounds exactly like another word, but has a different meaning and a different spelling. If you stand on the stair and stare at the picture, you have a good example of a couple of homophones.... It is possible for a word to be a homograph or a homophone. However, whatever the word may be, it is also, by definition, a homonym. In other words, homonym is a conceptual word that embraces both homographs and homophones [H]omonym is just the collective noun for homograph and homophone." -- (David Rothwell, Dictionary of Homonyms. Wordsworth, 2007) 2|Page DERIVING MEANING OF WORDS FROM CONTEXT Contextual clues are surrounding words, phrases, sentences, ideas, and events that help you arrive at the meanings of unfamiliar words. It is sometimes possible to work out the meanings of unfamiliar words by analysing the context in which they occur. There are several forms of contextual clues. 1. Definitions A definition is the most direct way to provide readers with a clue of what an unfamiliar word means. Words such as that is, or, meaning, known as, is called, in other words, refers and is defined are often used to introduce definition. Example: In the last geometry class, Mr. Chin explains that a plane figure of six sides and 6 angles is called a hexagon. In some cases, the definition is set off with dashes, brackets or commas. Example: Public schools are all both free and egalitarian; all students are considered equal and learn the same material. 2. Examples Examples are used to throw light on the meaning of a new word or term. Words like such as, including, for example and for instances are used to introduce examples. Example: They went to doctors for treatment of a number of symptoms such as tiredness, headaches, sore throats and respiratory problems. 3. Synonyms The meaning of an unfamiliar word can be inferred through the use of a different word or term with a similar meaning. Example: The family doctor said that the medication for June’s sister was innocuous, that is, it was harmless. 4. Antonyms Another type of clue comes in the form of antonyms or opposite expressions to the unknown word. Word or phrases such as but, however, yet, nevertheless, while, rather than, although, whereas, despite, in contrast are used to signal the contrast. Example: Bill is always despondent while his supposed friend is always lighthearted. 3|Page SKIMMING AND SCANNING Skimming and scanning are two specific speed-reading techniques, which enable readers to cover a vast amount of material and information very rapidly. These techniques are similar in process but different in purpose. Quickly “looking over” an article is neither skimming nor scanning. Both techniques require specific steps to be followed. 1. Scanning In scanning, you usually have a question to, or something specific to look for. It might be a telephone number, a particular quotation in a book, or supporting facts to use in a discussion you are having. When you scan, your goal is to find just the information you want and you do not start from the beginning and read to the end. The steps involved in the scanning process include: (1) checking the organization (2) forming specific questions (3) anticipating clue words (4) identifying likely answer locations (5) using a systematic pattern (6) confirming your answer 2. Skimming In skimming, your purpose is quite different. You may be interested in the “gist” of an article, or you may want to sample a book in the library before deciding to take it out. When you skim, you alternate read and glance, and your goal is to obtain an impression of the whole. When skimming, you will often skip words, sentences, and paragraphs. The skimming process is described as containing key actions: Reading the title and subtitle, headings, introductions, first sentences in paragraphs, key words, graphic elements, and final paragraphs. Scan: To look over quickly and systematically; to look over or leaf through hastily Skim: To give a quick and superficial reading, scrutiny, or consideration; glance Skimming looks for signposts while scanning looks for specific information 4|Page DISTINGUISHING MAIN IDEAS FROM SUPPORTING DETAILS 1. Identifying the Main Idea One of the skills in reading is to be able to distinguish between the main ideas and the supporting details in a given text. Most English writing is organized into paragraphs. A paragraph is a group of sentences that are related to each other and discuss about the same idea. A good paragraph is made up of sentences that develop a single thought. That thought, is called main idea, may be expressed in one or more sentences. The main idea is the summary of the essential points of the paragraph and it excludes detailed information. Sometimes, the writer summarizes his or her main idea in one sentence called the topic sentence. The topic sentence is the one sentence from the paragraph, which states the main idea and explains what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph. However, some writers prefer to put the topic sentence as the last sentence or in the middle of a paragraph. Identifying the main idea of a text is one of the most important reading strategies used by good readers. Identifying the main idea helps readers to understand and remember what they have read. The following questions can be used as the clues to find the main idea of a paragraph. “Who or what is the passage/text/article about?’ The answer to this question will be the topic. The topic is the word or phrase that tells what the reading is about. “What does the writer want the readers to know about the topic?” The answer to this question is the main idea. 2. Identifying Supporting Details Once you have identified the main idea, you need to look for the sentences that the writer supports, explains or proves the main idea. These sentences are called supporting details. Supporting sentences in the paragraph are added details, reasons, examples, facts, and ideas that prove, explain, support, or give examples to the main idea. To identify supporting details, follow these steps: 1) Ask yourself the question “What additional information does the writer provide to help readers understand the main idea?” 5|Page  2) Look for signal words. (signal words: first, second, next, also, in addition, moreover, etc.) Finding the main idea and supporting details is helpful in many ways:- ▪ To understand a paragraph and a passage ▪ Identify general point the author is making ▪ Perceive the relationship between the main idea and what is said about the idea Note: How to find the topic, topic sentence, main idea and supporting details in a paragraph ❖ Decide the topic of the paragraph – person, place, things, abstract or idea, even a process ❖ Find the topic sentence – can be found in the first sentence, or the last sentence, or in the middle, or sometimes it is implied. ❖ After locating the topic sentence, turn the statement into a general question. This will help you focus on supporting details of the topic sentence –use 5W 1H question (who, when, where, what, why, how). ❖ Once the topic sentence and supporting details have been identified, the main idea can be located. 6|Page  DISTINGUISHING THE RELEVANT FROM THE IRRELEVANT In a paragraph, if the information supports the author's purpose in the argument, then, it is said to be relevant, whether or not the information is true. Conversely, if the information does not help the author's purpose in the argument, it is said to be irrelevant. Example 1 The patio is the most pleasant place outside my house to relax in. A. The sofa is wonderfully soft and comfortable. B. The tinted sunroof makes it beautiful and cool. C. The jasmine flowers from the garden give off a sweet scent. D. My neighbour often admires my patio. Comment: D is not relevant because the information does not help to establish the author's aim of informing the reader that the patio is a pleasant place to relax in. In fact, your neighbour's admiration has nothing to do with the pleasantness of the patio. Example 2 In the following choices, which description is not relevant to the purpose of the writer? Marjorie is a fish lover. A. There are pictures of fish on the wall B. In the room you see two beautiful aquariums with lovely fish swimming in them. C. Marjorie cooks fantastic fish and chips D. On the bookshelf is a book, Fishes of the World. Comment: C is not relevant because "Marjorie is a fish lover" means that she loves to rear fish and not that she can cook fantastic fish and chips. 7|Page MAKING INFERENCES Authors do not always tell readers everything they want them to know. Good readers infer when they want to understand more than what the author has written. Inferring occurs when you understand something that is not stated directly. We infer when we try to read facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice. For example, if you saw a friend looking upset and holding his arm at recess, you might infer that he hurt himself on the playground. We infer in many ways in our lives. Inferring when we read is like putting a puzzle together in our minds. Readers combine their own background experience and what the author has written like pieces of a puzzle. They use their own background knowledge and clues from the text to create new meaning. Putting the pieces of the puzzle together helps readers draw conclusions based on clues from the text, make predictions about what will come, understand underlying themes, and construct new meaning. Inferring makes reading much more interesting! Readers also infer because sometimes we have lots of questions that are not answered in the text. Sometimes authors want readers to think of different possible answers. Sometimes we change ourinferences as we read on and find out more information. Good readers ask themselves questions and makeinferences based on their prior knowledge and clues from the text. When inferring, readers say things to themselves like: “I think ….” “This must mean that …” “Based on this, I’m guessing that …” “I predict … because …” “I think that happened because…” Inferences are conclusions that the reader makes based on evidence from the text and his or her own experience. Here is how you infer: Ask yourself questions as you read Think about what the author tells you Think about your own experiences Make a conclusion (an inference) based on the information you thought about PREDICTING OUTCOMES Predicting outcomes is another important reading skill that you need to master. This reading skill actually helps you to understand the text better by helping you to anticipate or expect how the writer would develop the ideas and anticipate what the conclusion would be. Paragraphs or larger readings present information to support a topic, but they do not always state all the possible results of the events the writer discusses. Predicting outcome is to make a reasonably accurate guess as to how the reading will end. 8|Page TRANSFERRING INFORMATION: LINEAR TO NON-LINEAR TEXTS Source: Picture reprinted with permission from Tanka, J. & Most, P. (2007). Interactions 1, page 24. New York: McGraw-Hill. Let us look at an example. Study the picture. 1. What are the three people thinking about? What do you see in the picture? You see each person has a “thought bubble”. Each person has a different image in his/her thought bubble: 1. The man on the left – picture of a person snorkelling 2. The woman – picture of a person skiing 3. The man on the right – picture of a person relaxing on the beach Your answer, therefore, could be: 1. (The three people are thinking about what to do on their holidays.) Did it take you only a short while to answer Question 1? How did you get your answer? Did any words or sentences guide you? What you see are only pictures. See how the pictures can more easily and quickly help you to interpret the information than if you were to read about it from a written text. A picture is indeed worth a thousand words. Information which is presented in the visual form can be more effectively processed and retained. Reading texts can be divided into two main types, namely: 9|Page  1. Linear 2. Non-linear What is a linear text? It consists of words or sentences written in lines or paragraphs. Most of the texts we read in newspapers, magazines, books and other printed materials are in a linear form. A non-linear text, on the other hand, is a visual representation of information. Some examples of non-linear texts are charts, diagrams, graphs, maps, photographs and tables. Non-linear texts have many functions which include the following: To show trends To make comparisons To show relationships To indicate causes or effects To clarify complicated concepts To summarise findings or results 10 | P a g e PRACTICE A mini research was conducted recently among university undergraduates to find out the top five searches using the Oogle Doogle search engine for the year 2012. 2000 students from across the nation participated in the research. The results showed that “Gangnam Mate” took the top place with 32 per cent or 640 students wanting to know more about the infectious kangaroo-style dance. “Uncle Sam Note III” garnered second place. This smart phone with a stylus pen attracted 28 per cent of the total number of students or 560 out of 2,000. This was followed by “Modern Management University” (MMU) with 22 per cent (440) of the students doing a search on it and “scholarships” with 10 per cent or 200 students. At the bottom of the list is the movie Breaking Down at Sunset. Only 8 per cent of the total number of students or 160 were interested to know more about this movie. The above data can be transferred into a simpler and clearer form using non-linear text. Below are some of the ways of presenting the information: 1. Table: (a) Summarises information. (b) Presents information in an organised manner. No. Searches Percentage Number of of students students 1 Gangnam Mate 32 640 2 Uncle Sam Note III 28 560 3 Modern Management 22 440 University (MMU) 4 Scholarships 10 200 5 Breaking Down at Sunset 8 160 Total 100 2,000 11 | P a g e 2. Pie chart: (a) Compares parts to a whole (b) Shows a percentage distribution. 3. Bar graph: (a) Shows relationships between different data (b) Represents the measured value or frequency. 12 | P a g e 4. Line graph: (a) Uses lines to connect data (b) Shows trends 13 | P a g e  TASK A: LINEAR TO NON-LINEAR TEXTS 1. You are attending a short briefing on the process of batik designing by Mr. Nik Rahim Nik Rahman from Batik Boutique. Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. Selamat Datang to Batik Boutique. This morning I would like to explain to all of you the process of batik designing. It is actually a very simple process. There are a few things that you need such as a piece of white cloth, preferably cotton, linen or silk. These are natural fibre fabrics and they absorb wax very easily. Besides the fabrics, you also need wax and resin. Resin is a brownish yellowish glue-type substance taken from the bark of the Eucalyptus tree. You also need dye, tjanting, brushes, colour brushes, soda and sodium silicate. For those of you who do not know what tjanting is, it is a traditional hand-held copper tool or wax pen used in creating batik patterns. It holds and dispenses hot wax and allows the artist to control the pattern laid down by the wax with a great deal of precision. Ladies and gentlemen, first of all, you need to heat an equal amount of wax and resin in a container. If you use 500 ml of wax, then you should also use the same amount of resin. Then, fill in the tjanting with the heated wax and resin. Next, by using the tjanting, draw the outline of your designs on the white cloth. You can then start filling in the colours using the colour brushes. Once the colours are dry, apply a layer of sodium silicate on them and leave them for four hours. This is to ensure that the colours will not fade. Your next step is to boil the fabric in a pot for five minutes and add some soda to remove the wax. Finally, hang the fabric to dry. Voilà! You have now created your own piece of beautiful batik! Transfer the information above into the flow chart below. 14 | P a g e A flow chart: (a) Describes the stages in a process (b) Shows the sequence of an event Batik Designing Process Heat an equal amount of and Fill with heated wax and resin Draw design on cloth Fill in using Apply a layer of on the. Leave for hours. the fabric for five minutes and add _. Finally, to. 15 | P a g e 2. The police have revealed the statistics of missing children under twelve for the past five years (2008– 2012) and the number of cases solved for each respective year. The reasons why these children went missing were also revealed. They include being kidnapped, lost or unintentionally getting separated from their parents during family outings. In 2008, there were 50 missing children and 50 per cent of them were found. The numbers increased to 62 in 2009 and 50 cases were solved. In 2010, 70 children went missing and the police successfully solved 60 cases. In 2011, the number of missing children increased quite significantly by 18 and in that year the police were able to solve 80 cases. We must laud the police for a job well done in 2012 because they have successfully found 95 per cent of the 100 missing children. They attributed their success to the good relationship between the police and the community in combatting crime against children and the effectiveness of the NUR (Nationwide Urgent Response) Alert system. Now, complete the bar graph below based on the information you have gathered from the text. 16 | P a g e TASK B: NON-LINEAR TO LINEAR TEXTS 1. Look at the sample of a menu card below: Source: Picture reprinted with permission from Tanka, J. & Most, P. (2007). Interactions 1, page 55. New York: McGraw-Hill. (a) Identify the least and the most expensive meal on the menu. (b) How are the mixed vegetables prepared? (c) What is the option for customers who do not take ice cream? (d) List three food items in the menu which are suitable for vegetarians. (e) How much does one has to pay for fresh orange juice? (f) All the house specialities come with the same side dishes. What are they? 17 | P a g e  2. Study the table below and answer the questions. Feel free to attend any talk or workshop listed below: Date Time Talk /Workshop Venue Speaker 16.03.13 (Sat) & 10am–11.30 Welcome to Tun Hasnah Dr. Badrul Hassan, 17.03.13 (Sun) am MMU! Hall Director, Corporate Communications Unit 12 pm–1 pm Bridging the gap Tun Hasnah Assoc. Prof. Dr. (Sat only) from SPM to Hall Khudri Nazri, Foundation Dean, Foundation Studies Studies Centre 12 pm–1 pm Career Crystal Tun Hasnah Ms. Elaine Ong, (Sun only) Ball – Hall Head, Counselling & Prospects after Career Unit MMU 2.30 pm–3.30 Student Life is Alpha Ms. Jennifer Chor, pm FUN at MMU Seminar President, Students Room Representative Council 3.30 pm–4.30 Malaysian Alpha Prof. Dr. Sivarani Seri pm University Seminar Karuna, English Test Room Dean, Faculty of (MUET) English Studies 4.30 pm–5.30 Money Matters: Alpha Dr. Thiba Pretyta, pm Scholarship & Seminar Director, Admissions Financial Aid Room & Bursary Unit (a) When was Modern Management University’s Open Day 2013? 18 | P a g e (b) What was the event held at the Great Hall? (c) Identify the speaker for the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) talk. (d) If a student was interested to know more about his future after MMU, which talk should he have attended? (e) Which was a suitable day for SPM leavers to attend the Open Day? Give a reason to support your answer. TASK C 1. Read the following article and then transfer the relevant information to the table. Men and Women in Business Are men really from Mars and women from Venus as proposed by Dr. John Gray? In the business world, they demonstrate that they are as distinct as the two planets. For women, equality is important at the workplace for they usually want everybody in the group to have the same position. They often see conversation as a way to connect with other people - in other words, to be close to them and find ways that they are similar – almost the same. Men, on the other hand, believe that having a high position in the hierarchy is important. They usually see conversation as a way to give and get information and climb up the corporate ladder. Men and women also have different body language. They have different ways to communicate with their face and body. In meetings, women like to sit face to face while men like to sit side by side. In conversations, people of both genders often nod. For women, it usually means, “I’m listening to you. I understand”. But for men, it usually means, “I agree”. 19 | P a g e  What happens when there are problems in the workplace? Men and women have different ways to solve the problems. Women, who feel comfortable with equality, want to talk about the problem and solve it together with other people. Men want to find answers and end the problem quickly. A woman who needs help usually asks for help. This is easy for her. It is a small connection with another person. A man does not like to ask for help. He thinks it puts him in a low position in the hierarchy. One might ask, “Who’s right? The men or the women?” Experts usually agree that there is no “right” or “wrong”. It is just that each gender has different styles of working in the workplace. Source: Adapted with permission from Hartman, P. & Mentel, J. (2014). Interactions Access Reading (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Title: Men Women 1. One important element at the workplace 2. Perception of “conversation” 3. Seating position in meetings 4. Body language: “nods” 5. Problem-solving method Sources: Mylearningenglishdaily.blogspot.com. (2016, August 11). MUET - Reading Comprehension Skills. Retrieved July 04, 2020, from http://mylearningenglishdaily.blogspot.com/2016/08/reading-skills.html. Tanka, J. & Most, P. (2007). Interactions 1, page 24. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hartman, P. & Mentel, J. (2014). Interactions Access Reading (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 20 | P a g e  CHAPTER 2 GRAMMAR 1. WORD CLASSES (PARTS OF SPEECH) Word Classes, also known as parts of speech, consist of eight parts: o Nouns o Verbs o Adjectives o Adverbs o Pronouns o Prepositions o Conjunctions o Interjections Word classes include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. WORD CLASSES FUNCTIONS EXAMPLES 1. NOUNS - the name of person, place, thing or idea beauty - words used to take the place of one or 2. PRONOUNS her more nouns - the idea of ‘being’ or action in the 3. VERBS beautify sentence - words that modify verbs, adjectives or 4. ADVERBS beautifully another verbs - words that describe or modify another 5. ADJECTIVES beautiful person or thing in the sentence - words showing the relation of a noun or 6. PREPOSITIONS a noun substitute to some other word in at the sentence 7. CONJUNCTIONS - words that connect parts of a sentence and - words used to exclaim, protest or 8. INTERJECTIONS ouch! command Hurrah (interjection)! There is (verb) a wide (adjective) selection (noun) of restaurants (noun) to choose (verb) from. They (pronoun) serve (verb) the freshest (adjective) seafood (noun). Let us (pronoun) try (verb) the one (noun) beside (preposition) the hotel (noun). Come (verb)! Walk (verb) quickly (adverb)! I want (verb) to try (verb) some crabs (noun) and (conjunction) shrimps (noun). 21 | P a g e  2. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT There are many grammatical rules in English. One of the most basic would be subject-verb agreement. The basic principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs. Plural subjects need plural verbs. A subject is a person, animal or thing that does a particular action. It is the ‘doer’. A verb is an action or activity that the subject or 'doer' does. The subject and verb in a sentence would have to 'agree' and complement each other to be grammatically correct. Examples: 1. Everyone has completed his or her assignments. 2. Some of the buttons are missing. 3. One of the boys is going to withdraw from this college. 22 | P a g e  3. VERB TENSES Verb tenses are used to express time. There are three basic tense forms in English: the present, the past, and the future. (a) The Present Tenses The present tenses are divided into four categories: i) The Simple Present Tense This tense is used to talk about the following: repeated actions or habits. Examples: I drive to work every day. She stays at home and cooks dinner every evening. situations which are permanent Examples: We live in Cheras. Tom works in Vancouver. general truths or facts. Examples: The longest river in Malaysia is Sungai Rajang in Sarawak. Hindus consider the cow sacred. ii) The Present Progressive Tense / Present Continuous Tense This tense is used to talk about the following: something which is in progress at the moment of speaking Examples: Where is Charles? He is mowing the lawn. You may turn up the radio. The children are not studying. 23 | P a g e iii) The Present Perfect Tense Sentences in this tense connect the past with the present. This tense is used to talk about the following: something which started in the past and continues up to the present Examples: I have studied in Spain for eight months. (= She is still studying in Spain now). Rajan and Jane have been friends for twelve years. (= They are still friends now). things which happened during a period of time that continues up to the present Examples: I have backpacked to Europe and Indochina. (= in my life, up to now) What's the scariest thing that has ever happened to you? (= in your life, up to now) iv) The Present Perfect Continuous Tense Sentences in this tense also connect the past with the present. They often talk about the following: something which started in the past and has been in progress up to the present Examples: She has been waiting for her parents for two hours. How long have you been working in this company? an action which has been in progress up to the recent past, especially if it has results in the present Example: It has been raining. (It is not raining now, but there are puddles everywhere.) 24 | P a g e (b) The Past Tenses The past tenses are divided into the following categories: i) The Simple Past Tense This tense is used to talk about actions and situations in the past. Examples: I swam yesterday evening. They didn't go to Phuket during the May holidays. They went to Pulau Redang instead. ii) The Past Progressive Tense / Past Continuous Tense This tense talks about an action or situation that had started, but had not finished at a past time. Examples: We saw you talking to Jackie this morning. Were you playing hockey at 6pm yesterday evening. iii) The Past Perfect Tense This tense is used to refer back to an earlier past when talking about the past. Examples: They arrived at Suzie's house at 7pm, but she had already left. He hadn't studied for the exam, so he was very nervous. iv) The Past Perfect Progressive Tense / Past Perfect Continuous Tense This tense is also used to refer back to an earlier past when talking about the past. Examples: They had been practicing football when the accident happened. Tim was very tired when he arrived at my house as he had been working all day. 25 | P a g e (c) The Future Tenses The future tenses can be divided into the following categories: i) The Simple Future Tense This tense is used for the following functions: to make predictions about the future Examples: That branch looks flimsy. It is going to break. It will rain today. Look at how dark the sky is. to talk about what we plan to do in the future Examples: The room looks messy. I will clean it up. We are going to Singapore this weekend. I shall go shopping this evening. ii) The Future Progressive Tense / Future Continuous Tense This tense is used to talk about something that will be in progress at a time in the future. Examples: We'll be watching a movie tonight. What will they be doing tomorrow morning? Don't call him in the evenings. He will be sleeping. iii) The Future Perfect Tense This tense is used to talk about something that will be completed by (not later than) a certain time in the future. Examples: I'll have finished my homework by 3.00. We can meet then. They will have lived in Australia for three years next July. 26 | P a g e (iv) The Future Perfect Progressive Tense / Future Perfect Continuous Tense This tense is used to talk about actions being in progress over a period of time that will end in the future. Example: Anne and Tiong Hoon will have been working in Kuala Pilah for three years when they come back to Melaka next June. Source: Beaumont, D. & Granger, C. (1998). The Heinemann English Grammar: An Intermediate Reference and Practice Book. Oxford: Heinemann. 27 | P a g e  CHAPTER 3 WRITING SENTENCE PATTERNS One of the marks of good writer is the ability to use a variety of sentence types. The simple sentence is an important weapon to have in your writing task, but it is limited in the ways it can be used an in the jobs it can perform. Compound and complex sentences give you additional alternatives for expressing ideas, usually in more precise ways. 1. Simple Sentence A Simple sentence is a sentence that has only one independent clause. It expresses one idea only. Mariam works in private firm. A simple sentence has at least [subject] [verb] one subject and one verb. Mariam and her sister work in a private firm. A simple sentence can have a [2 subjects] compound subject Mariam works and studies part-time in a private institution. A simple sentence can have a [2 verbs] compound verb 2. Compound Sentence A compound sentence is a sentence that has 2 or more independent clauses of generally equal importance. Example: independent clause 1 independent clause 2 We ate some spaghetti, and we had chocolate cheesecake for dessert. independent clause 1 independent clause 2 Laura enjoys dancing; she can dance for hours. There are 3 ways to join the clauses: 1. with a comma followed by a I wrote to her, but she did not reply. coordinator [ind. Clause]; + [coordinator] + [ind. Clause] Coordinators: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. 28 | P a g e  2. with a semicolon followed by a I wrote to her; however , she did not reply. conjunctive adverb and a comma [ind. Clause]; + [conj. Adverb], + [ ind. Clause] Common conjunctive adverb: however, besides, accordingly, meanwhile, next, then, similarly, also, furthermore, moreover, nevertheless 3. with a semicolon I write to her; she did not reply. [ind. Clause] +; [ ind. Clause] 3. Complex Sentence A complex sentence is a sentence that includes one independent clause and one (or more) subordinate clause(s). The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the dependent clause. Example: independent clause dependent clause She is skinny although she eats a lot. independent clause dependent clause All security guards will have to undergo training if they wish to remain employed. There are 3 kinds of subordinate clauses: adverb; adjective and noun. A variety of connecting words may be used to join these clauses. Adverb dependent clause Types of relationship a) Time- after, as, before, since, ▪ After we have finished, we will go for a long until, whenever, when, while vacation. b) Cause or reason- as, because, ▪ We stopped because the light was red. since, whereas c) Purpose or result- so that, that, in ▪ She stayed up late so that she can watch the live order that telecast football match. d) Condition- although, though, ▪ Although it was raining, we went to the game even though, while, unless, if, provided *Adverb clause can appear either before or after the independent clause. If it comes before the independent clause, a comma follows it. If it comes after the independent clause, no comma is needed. 29 | P a g e  Adjective dependent clause (relative Pronouns) a) Animals and things- which, that ▪ Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which b) People- who, whom that features excellent scuba diving c) Place- where ▪ The student, who sits next to the President, d) Possessives- whose receives an award for Overall Best Student. e) Reason- why, that f) Time- when * The adjective clause functions as an adjective: it modifies a noun or a pronoun. Noun clause Common connective words: ▪ John said that we should all go for the vacation Reported speech – that Embedded [Sub.] [v] [object] questions – how, if, when, whether, why, and all other question words. * A dependent noun clause can function as either a subject or an object of the sentence. 4. Compound-Complex Sentence It is a combination of two or more independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many combinations are possible, and their punctuation requires careful attention. Example: dependent clause independent clause 1 independent clause 2 Although we were tired, we had to stay up till 3a.m. and study for our Mathematics examination. independent clause 1 independent clause 2 dependent clause He had washed the dishes, but he had forgotten to turn off the radio before he left this morning. ▪ I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to work immediately. ▪ After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work immediately. ▪ I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to support my family. 30 | P a g e THE PROCESS OF WRITING For many people, writing is a process that involves the following steps: 1. Discovering a thesis (often through prewriting). 2. Developing solid support for the thesis (often through more prewriting). 3. Organizing the thesis and supporting material and writing it out in a first draft. 4. Revising and then editing carefully to ensure an effective, error-free paper. PROCESS OF WRITING PRE-WRITING WHILE-WRITING POST-WRITING - identifying the - drafting - revising topic of interest - editing A. Pre-writing 1. brainstorming 2. diagramming or clustering 3. preparing a scratch outline 4. free-writing 5. formal outline 1. Brainstorming - generating ideas, using what, when, why, where, who, how To get ideas and stimulate your thoughts, you can use the strategy of brainstorming. You can brainstorm alone or with a group. Here are some guidelines to follow when brainstorming: ▪ Give yourself or the group a limited amount of time. ▪ Write down the word or phrase you need to get ideas about. ▪ Write down all the possible ideas that come to mind. ▪ Do not organise your points in any way. ▪ When time is up, look over the ideas to see if any can be grouped together. Example: VIDEO GAMES addictive, fun, time consuming, more exciting than TV, bad for eyes, homework, too violent, expensive, takes time away 31 | P a g e  2. Diagramming or Clustering - mind-mapping; using the visual way Clustering is another way of generating ideas. To cluster you make a visual plan of the connections among your ideas. Use the following guidelines for clustering: ▪ Write your topic in the center of your paper and circle it ▪ Draw a line from the circle and write an idea related to it. Circle the idea And from it draw lines and write ideas related to it. Keep making new circles and connecting them back to the ideas they came from. ▪ When you have no more ideas, look at your clusters and decide which ideas seem more important Example: Heredity Lack of exercise Slow metabolic rate Psychological problems Causes Overeating OBESITY Heredity Tempted by TV Effects Lack of advertising of junk food ambition Health Low self- problems esteem Hypertension Diabetes Depression Heart problems Stroke From this diagram, the writer can develop an essay on the causes or effects of obesity. 3. Preparing a scratch outline - a plan to achieve a unified, supported & organised composition 32 | P a g e In a scratch outline; you think carefully about the point you are making, the supporting items for the point and the order in which you will arrange those items. The scratch outline is a plan or blueprint to help you achieve a unified, supported, well-organised essay. When you are planning a traditional essay consisting of an introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion, a' scratch outline is especially important. It may be only a few words, but it will be the framework on which your whole essay will be built. Example: As Diane was working on her list of details, she suddenly realised what the plan of her essay could be. She could organise many of her details into one of three supporting groups 1) annoyances in going out 2) too many tempting snacks 3) noise by other people She then went back to her list, crossed out items that she now saw did not fit, and numbered the items according to the group where they fit. Here is what Diane did with her list 1 Traffic is bad between my house and theater 3 Noisy patrons Don’t want to run into Jeremy 3 Kids running in aisles 3 I'm crowded into seats between strangers who push me off arm rests 1 Not enough parking 1 Parking lot needs to be expanded 1 Too many previews Can’t pause or fast forward as you can with the DVD 1 Long lines 1 High ticket prices 2 Too many temptations at snack stand Commercial for food on the screen 2 Can prepare healthy snacks for myself at home 2 Tubs of popcorn with butter Candy has always been my downfall 1 Movie may be sold out 3 People who've seen movie before talk along with actors and give away plot twists 3 People coughing and sneezing Under the list, Diane was now able to prepare her scratch outline: Going to the movies offers some real problems. 1. Inconvenience of going out 2. Tempting snacks 3. Other moviegoers 33 | P a g e 4. Free-writing - to get the flow, whether it goes well with you, don't have to worry about the grammar, ideas are more important, read something first, where? usually in diary Free-writing means jotting down in rough sentences or phrases everything that comes to mind about a possible topic. See if you can write nonstop for ten minutes or more. Do not worry about spelling or punctuating correctly, about erasing mistakes, about organising material, or about finding exact words. Instead, explore an idea by putting down whatever pops into your mind. 5. Formal (Sentence) outline Thesis: If women are ever to break through the glass ceiling in significant numbers business attitudes will have to change, particularly the definition of successful management styles. Women face resistance from both men and women in top management. A. Women are in a double bind: they are expected to act like men, but are criticized when they do. B. Women also face resistance from “queen bees,” other women who are already executives. 1. Queen bees feel that younger women should not have it any easier than they did. 2. Queen bees interfere with working conditions, morale, and promotions. Business favours a masculine management style over a feminine style. A. A masculine management style is characterized by a militaristic atmosphere that fosters competition. B. Women are not given the option to exercise their own style. C. When women imitate men, they are subject to sex-role stereostyping and alienation. 1. Brown and Geis found stereotyping in their study. 2. Woman executives pass around a humorous list of characteristics of businessmen versus businesswomen. 3. Loden says that women are less effective when they imitate men. A feminine management style must be accommodated in business if women are to make it to the top. A. An interview with a female manager illustrates a feminine style of co-operation and participation. B. Powell emphasize that an androgynous management style take account of both tasks and emotions. C. An androgynous style of management will help not only women but business itself. 34 | P a g e B. WHILE-WRITING 1. Drafting After you have developed some ideas for your essay, it is time to start drafting or actually writing your essay. First, you should draft the thesis statement. The thesis statement will have to tell the reader the main idea you are discussing and your approach to the main idea. A thesis statement cannot simply state what you are going to do, for example, "In this essay I will describe my brother". It should present your approachto the main idea as in, "My brother is both an ambitious and sociable character". Here the wordsambitiousand energetic will be the focus of your description of your brother. With the thesis statement written, your focus on the subject will be clear. You would write one paragraph on the ambitious aspect of your brother with supporting statements and details, and another paragraph on the sociable character of your brother with supporting statements and details. The following are some questions to think about as you write your draft: ▪ What kind of supporting details do I need? ▪ How many supporting details do I have to give and how long they have to be? ▪ How do I avoid overlapping supporting details? As you are writing your first draft, remember these questions and check and change sentences that do not support the main idea clearly. C. POST-WRITING After the first draft, plan to revise your draft at least one time. Revising means changing the organisation or content of the essay, which include editing. The questions on the checklist below will help you to see if your essay is focused and well developed. 1. Revision Checklist Thesis Statement Does the thesis statement state your main idea clearly? ( ) Does the thesis statement show your approach or attitude to the main idea? ( ) Unity Do the supporting details and examples show the writer's attitude toward the main idea? ( ) Development Are more supporting details needed? ( ) Is enough evidence provided to support the main idea? ( ) Is the evidence that is provided convincing? ( ) Coherence Are all the paragraphs logically connected to each other? ( ) Do the sentences flow logically one after the other? ( ) Are transitions needed to make the sentences clearer? ( ) Purpose Is the writer's purpose clear? ( ) What did the writer want to convey to the reader? ( ) 35 | P a g e WRITING AN ESSAY An essay is a formal composition and has three parts: the introduction, body paragraphs and the conclusion. Below is the general structure for a 5-paragraph essay, also known as the one-three-one essay format Introductory Paragraph Thesis Statement (Central Idea) Body Paragraph 1 Body Paragraph 2 Body Paragraph 3 Topic Sentence Topic Sentence Topic Sentence (Controlling Idea 1) (Controlling Idea 2) (Controlling Idea 3) - Supporting Details - Supporting Details - Supporting Details Concluding Paragraph Summary of Main Points Closing Remarks A. Writing Effective Introduction The introductory paragraph generally consists of two important components. The first component is the topic of the essay. It is important that the introductory paragraph be interesting enough to capture the reader’s attention and interest so they will continue to read the essay. The second component is the thesis statement. The thesis provides the gist of the following body paragraphs. It is usually found at the end of the introductory paragraph. 1. General Statement Starting with a general statement helps to gradually guide the reader to the thesis statement. Travelling to a foreign country is always interesting, especially if it is a country that is completely different from your own. You can delight in tasting new foods, seeing new sights, and learning about different customs, some of which may seem very curious. If you were to visit my country, for instance, you would probably think that my people have some very strange customs, as these three examples will illustrate. 36 | P a g e 2. Questions Starting with questions that prods the reader to start thinking about possible answers. What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special person, how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they are genuine, will these feelings last? Love, as we know, is difficult to define. But most people agree that true and lasting love involves far more than mere physical attraction. Love involves mutual respect, the desire to give rather than take and the feeling of being completely at ease with the other person. 3. Anecdotes Starting with an anecdote or a brief story makes an essay interesting and appealing. The anecdote should be appealing and related to your thesis statement. Last week, a woman signing herself “Want the Truth in Westport” wrote to Ann Landers with a question she just had to have answered. “Please find out for sure,” she begged the columnist, “whether or not Oprah Winfrey has had a face lift.” Fortunately for Ms. Winfrey’s privacy, Ann Landers refused to answer the question. But the incident disturbed me. How awful it would be to be a celebrity, I thought, and always be in the public eye. Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety. 4. Quotation Starting with a quotation can make your introduction lively. It can be a popular saying or proverb, a current advertising slogan, or a favourite expression used by friends or family. “Fish and visitors”, wrote Benjamin Franklin, “begin to smell after three days”. Last summer, when my sister and her family came to spend their two-week vacation with us, I became convinced that Franklin was right. After only three days of their visit, I was thoroughly sick of my brother-in-law’s jokes, my sister’s endless complaints about her boss, and their children’s constant invasion of our privacy. 5. The Thesis Statement In an essay, the thesis statement is the sentence containing the central idea. It is the most important sentence and is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph. A thesis statement consists of a topic and a controlling idea for the entire essay and expresses an attitude, opinion or idea about the topic. topic controlling ideas Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety Exercise: Write a thesis for each group of supporting statements. 1. Thesis: a. First I tried simply avoiding the snack aisle of the supermarket. b. Then I started limiting myself to only five units of any given snacks. c. Finally, in desperation, I began keeping the cellophane bag of snacks in a padlocked cupboard. 37 | P a g e 2. Thesis: a. The holiday can be very frightening for little children. b. Children can be struck by cars while wearing vision-obstructing masks and dark costumes. c. There are always incidents involving deadly treats: fruits, cookies, and candies that contain razor blades or even poison. 3. Thesis: a. First of all I was a typical ‘type A’ personality: anxious, impatient, and hard-driving. b. I also had a family history of relatives with heart trouble. c. My unhealthy lifestyle, though, was probably the major factor. B. Writing Effective Body Paragraphs The body paragraphs develop the thesis statement given in the introduction. Note that each body paragraph should contain a topic sentence and it should refer back to the thesis statement. At the same time, the topic sentence should contain a transition that will hook all the 3-body paragraph in the essay. The function of body paragraphs is to explain. Illustrate discuss or support the thesis statement. 1. Developing Topic Sentences Topic Sentence = Transition + Topic + Controlling Idea First of all, celebrities don’t have the privacy an ordinary person has. Below is the example of a thesis statement and how it can be developed into topic sentences for the body paragraph Thesis Statement: Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety. Topic Sentence 1: First of all, celebrities don’t have the privacy an ordinary person has. Topic Sentence 2: Other than privacy, celebrities are under constant pressure by their surroundings. Topic Sentence 3: In addition to privacy and pressure, celebrities must deal with the stress of being in constant danger. 2. Developing the body paragraphs Controlling Idea: No privacy Supporting Point 1: personal details on magazines Supporting Detail 1: love life Supporting Detail 2: family problem 38 | P a g e Supporting Point 2: chased by photographers Supporting Detail 1: at home Supporting Detail 2: on the street Supporting Point 1: cannot do normal things Supporting Detail 1: interrupted by fans Supporting Detail 2: request of autograph/picture First of all, celebrities don’t have the privacy an ordinary person has. The most personal details of their lives are splashed all over the front pages of the National Enquirer and the Globe so that bored supermarket shoppers can read about “Britney and Her New Love” or “Princess D’s Deepest Fear.” Even a celebrity’s family is hauled into the spotlight. A teenage son’s arrest for pot possession or a wife’s drinking problems becomes the subject of glaring headlines. Photographers hound celebrities at their homes, in restaurants and on the street, hoping to get a picture of Jennifer Anniston in curlers or David Beckham in a fistfight. When celebrities try to do the things that normal people do, like eat out or attend a football game, they run the risk of being interrupted by thoughtless autograph hounds or mobbed by aggressive fans. 3. Methods of Organizing an Essay I. Time Order Time or chronological order simply means that details are listed as they occur in time. First this is done; next this; after that, this; and so on. Thesis: To exercise successfully you should follow a simple plan consisting of arranging the time, making preparations, and warming up properly. a) To begin with, set aside a regular hour of exercise. b) Next, prepare for your exercise session. c) Finally, do a series of warm-up activities. II. Emphatic Order Emphatic order is sometimes described as ‘saving the best till last’. It is a way to put emphasis on the most interesting or important detail by placing it in the last part of the paragraph or in the final paragraph of an essay. Finally, last of all, and most important are typical words or phrases showing emphasis. Thesis: Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety. a) First of all, celebrities don’t have the privacy an ordinary person has. b) Other than privacy, celebrities are under constant pressure by their surroundings. c) Most important than privacy and pressure, celebrities must deal with the stress of being in constant danger. 39 | P a g e  4. Developing Coherent and Cohesive Writing I. Transitional Words Transitions signal the direction of a writer’s thought. They are like the road signs that guide travellers. In the box below are some common transitions, grouped according to the kind of signal they give to readers. Note that certain words provide more than one signal. Addition signals One, first of all, second, the third, also, next, another, and, in addition, moreover, furthermore, finally, last of all. Time signals First, then, next, after, as, before, while, meanwhile, soon, now, during, finally Space signals Next to, across, on the opposite side, to the left, to the right, above, below, near, nearby Change-of-direction But, however, yet, in contrast, although, otherwise, still, on the signals contrary, on the other hand Illustration signals For example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration, once, such as Conclusion signals Therefore, consequently, thus, then, as a result, in summary, to conclude, last of all, finally II.Transitional Sentences Transitional or linking sentences are used between paragraphs to help tie together the supporting paragraphs in an essay. They enable the reader to move smoothly and clearly from the idea in one paragraph to the idea in the next paragraph. Thesis statement Working in a mango orchard was dreadful, as the work was physically demanding, the pay was meagre and, most of all, the working conditions were depressing. First body paragraph To begin with, the job made tremendous demands on my strength and energy. For eight hours a day... Second body paragraph In addition to the physical demand, I was paid the minimum wage of that time, which was three ringgit an hour, plus… 40 | P a g e Third body paragraph Besides the low pay, I was absolutely upset about the working conditions. My supervisor… C. Writing Effective Conclusions Conclusions should be brief. A few well-worded sentences are adequate for a short essay. 1. End with a summary and a final comment Some people dream of starring roles, their names in lights, and their pictures on the cover of People magazine. I’m not one of them, though. A famous person gives up private life, feels pressured all the time, and is never completely safe. So let someone else have the cover story. I’d rather lead an ordinary, but calm, life than a stress-filled public one. 2. End with a recommendation If people stopped to think before acquiring pets, there would be fewer instances of cruelty to animals. Many times, it is the people who adopt pets without considering the expense and responsibility involved who mistreat and neglect their animals. Pets are living creatures and they do not deserve to be acquired as carelessly as one would acquire a stuffed toy. 3. Ask one or more questions. What, then, will happen in the twenty-first century when most of the population will be over sixty years old? Retirement policies could change dramatically, with the age-sixty-five testimonial dinner and gold watch postponed for five or ten years. Even television would change as the Geritol generation replaces the Pepsi generation. Glamorous gray-haired models would sell everything from toilet paper to televisions. New soap operas and situation comedies would reveal the secrets of the “sunset years”. It will be a different world indeed when the young finally find themselves outnumbered. 41 | P a g e Model Essay (1) The Hazards of Moviegoing I am a movie fanatic. My friends count on me to know movie trivia (who was the pigtailed little girl in E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial? Drew Barrymore) and to remember every big Oscar awarded since I was in grade school (best picture 1994? Forrest Gump). My friends, though have stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. While I love movies as much as ever, the inconvenience of going out, the temptations of the theatre, and the behaviour of some patrons are reasons for me to wait and rent the video. To begin with, I just don't enjoy the general hassle of the evening. Since small local movie theatres are a thing of the past, I have to drive for fifteen minutes to get to the nearest multiplex. The parking lot is shared with several restaurants and a supermarket, so it's always jammed. I have to drive around at a snail's pace until I spot another driver backing out. Then it's time to stand in an endless line, with the constant threat that tickets for the show I want will sell out. If we do get tickets, the theatre will be so crowded that I won't be able to sit with my friends or we'll have to sit in a front row gaping up at a giant screen. I have to shell out a ridiculous amount of money - up to $8 - for a ticket. That entitles me to sit while my shoes seal themselves to a sticky floor coated with spilled soda, bubble gum, and crushed Raisinets. Second, the theatre offers tempting snacks that I really don't need. Like most of us, I have to battle an expanding waistline. At home I do pretty well by simply not buying stuff that is bad for me. I can make do with snacks like celery and carrot sticks because there is no ice cream in the freezer. Going to the theatre, however, is like spending my evening in a Seven-Eleven that's been equipped with a movie screen and comfortable seats. As I try to persuade myself to just have a diet Coke, the smell of fresh popcorn dripping with butter soon overcomes me. Chocolate bars the size of small automobiles seem to jump into my hands.I risk pulling out my fillings as I chew enormous mouthfuls of Milk Duds. By the time I leave the theatre, I feel disgusted with myself. Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand. Little kids race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own living room. They comment loudly on the ages of the stars and reveal plot twists that are supposed to be a secret until the film ends. And people of all ages create distractions. They crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file-out for repeated trips to the rest rooms or concession stands, and elbow me out of the armrest on either side of my seat. After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the theatre, resisting unhealthy snacks, and dealing with the patrons. The next day, I arranged to have premium movie channels installed as part of my cable TV service, and I also got a membership in my local video store. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I am more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room. Source: Langan, J. (2000). College Writing Skills (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 42 | P a g e Exercise: Underline the thesis statement and three topic sentences in the essay above. Model Essay (2) How to “Flunk” a Class It is easier to fail a class than to pass it. There are a few habits that most failing students have in common. If you really want to flunk out of a class, all you have to do is pick up a few of these bad habits. Procrastination, lack of discipline and lack of respect are three easiest ways “flunking” a class. First of all, procrastinating helps us delay our sufferings. You just need to wait until the last minute to begin working on homework or assignment. You have got a great chance of failing if you try to cram a month's worth of research and writing into a few days or even hours. Do not study for a test until the night before. Students who get As and Bs usually begin studying as soon as they find out a test is coming. They start out by reading over all their notes the first night or two, then start testing themselves with little practice questions they make up. The next step is to forget about being disciplined. Do not keep an assignment diary or scheduler. Students who get As and Bs on their work usually do so because they have pesky little reminders in their schedulers that say things like "test in five days" or "read chapter 3 tonight". Do not't bother taking notes because the mere process of writing down the teacher's comments would make some of the material sink in, especially for tactile and visual learners. It is important to ignore all directions. Only successful students bother with directions. If you are working on a major project and you really want to fail, just ignore all that writing called directions. Only high-achieving students bother with the correct APA format on papers and proof-read their work before they print it. Last but not least, remember to show little respect. You should often fall asleep in class. It is always easy to spot the students who get good grades. They are wide awake when the teacher is talking orshowing examples on the board. You can tell that these students never watch TV or play video games untilthe wee hours of the morning. Annoy the teacher, chew gum, do not pay attention in class, talk to your friends, sleep or do whatever you can to get on your teacher's nerves. It will help a lot when the teacher is trying to decide between two grades. If you annoy the teacher, he or she will always know whether to giveyou credit for your effort. In conclusion, simply take it easy, forget about discipline and respect. What is the point of going to the first meeting of the class since the teacher is only going to introduce the students to the subject? Asthe class progresses, remember that sleep is too sweet to ignore, so keep on sleeping. There is always another class next week. On the night before the examination, stay up late and party with your friends. Then, during the examination, do what you can and then take a nap. After the results are announced, it is easy to put the blame on the teacher and claim that he or she “flunks” you because of personal hatred. Now wasn’t that easy? 43 | P a g e THE CAUSE - EFFECT ESSAY When we analyse the cause of something, we usually find that there are numerous contributing factors, or multiple causes, just how many factors depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause may or may not be sufficient to produce the effect. Usually, however, we find that it is a combination of the causes that produces the results. Structure of a Cause Essay Cause Essay The thesis statement in the Introduction introductory paragraph must clearly state the multiple causes to one effect. Cause I Cause II Present the causes in the body paragraphs, supported with details. Cause III Restate the thesis statement. Summarise the causes. Conclusion Comment. Recommend. Example: What causes obesity? Hereditary influences Lack of exercises Obesity Overeating. 44 | P a g e Look at how a paragraph explaining the factor of lack of exercise might be developed: Lack of exercise is one of the major factors contributing to obesity. When we eat we consume energy (measured as calories). When we exercise, we expend energy or burn up calories. For example, when we run for an hour, we burn up approximately 450 calories, depending on our body size. When the number of calories we consume exceeds the number we burn up, the excess energy is stored in our body in the form of fat. If a person is inactive, it is more likely that he will not burn up all the calories consumed, so obesity can result. Moreover, studies have shown that inactivity can cause an obese person to expend less energy during a certain activity than a non-obese person. This is because inactivity lowers the basal energy rate (the basic minimum rate at which the body burns up energy). Therefore, if an obese person and a non-obese person try to run one mile, the obese person unused to activity will expend less energy because he has a lower basal energy rate. Structure of an Effect Essay Effect Essay The thesis statement in the introductory Introduction paragraph must clearly state the multiple effects of one cause. Effect I Effect II Present the effects in the body paragraphs, supported with details. Effect III Restate the thesis statement. Summarise the effects. Conclusion Comment. Recommend. 45 | P a g e  Example: What are the effects of excessive sugar? Tooth decay Excessive consumption of sugar Hyperactivity in children Weight gain Note how the effect of tooth decay is explained in the following paragraph: One of the major effects of eating too much sugar is high incidence of tooth decay. When we eat something with sugar in it, particularly refined sugar, enzymes in the saliva in the mouth begin to work immediately to change that sugar into a type of carbohydrate. As one eats, particles of the sugary food get lodged between the teeth and around the gums. As the food changes its chemical composition, the resultant carbohydrate produces bacteria that begin to eat away at the enamel on the outside of our teeth. This is actually the decaying of our teeth. Now, if this process happens each time we eat sugar, we can see that eating excessive amounts of sugar causes more and more tooth decay. It is true that some tooth decay can be avoided with immediate brushing after eating, dislodging all the particles of food trapped in the teeth. However, sweets are often eaten as snacks between meals and during the day, times when people generally do not brush after eating. Therefore, the dangerous process of tooth decay is allowed to continue. Developing Coherent and Cohesive Cause-Effect Essay I. Transitions in Phrases A noun must follow each transition in this group. If the phrase containing the transition comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma usually follows it. The following transitions indicate cause: ▪ Because of the possibility of fetal brain damage, pregnant women should not consume alcohol. ▪ As a result of exercising regularly, a person can handle stress better. II. Expressions in Sentences Transitions in this group are verbs that express cause or effect. The following transitional verbs indicate cause: ▪ Premature aging of the skin results from too much exposure to the sun. ▪ Her fear of roaches was caused by an early childhood trauma. The following transitional verbs indicate effect: ▪ Lack of exercise can cause obesity. ▪ Walking regularly can result in improved health. III. Coordinating Conjunctions as Transitions The coordinating conjunctions so and for are often used as transitions. So indicates a result. However, it is somewhat colloquial and is usually avoided in formal writing. For indicates a cause and is quite formal. 46 | P a g e  ▪ The mongoose was protected by law, so it increased in number rapidly. ▪ We stopped at a restaurant, for we had not eaten since early morning. Transitional Expressions between Sentences. The transitions in this group usually occur between two complete sentences. They must be preceded by either a period or a semicolon. They cannot be preceded by a comma, but a comma often follows them. The following transitions indicate an effect or result: ▪ Mathematics and science teachers do not encourage young girls to study science; thus, there are not many female scientists. ▪ She perceived herself as fat; therefore, diets were unsuccessful. ▪ It significantly reduced the rat population. Consequently, damage the cane fields was reduced. 47 | P a g e Exercise: Underline the thesis statement and three topic sentences in the essay above. The Effects of Perfectionism Some people urge themselves to better performance with slogans like “Practice makes perfect.” However, I am a perfectionist, and I have to remember another slogan: “Sometimes good is good enough.” I stay away from proverbs that urge perfection. Over the years, I have noticed that the effects of perfectionism are mostly negative. Perfectionism affects my performance in high-pressure situations, the speed of my work, and the way I see myself. First of all, my perfectionism makes me anxious about high-pressure situations. In school, I worry about taking tests. The pressure is on because there is no way to go back or change my performance. As I enter the classroom on test day, I feel my hands becoming clammy and I worry that I will forget everythingI have studied. Socially, I worry when I will be dressed too casually or too formally, that I will forget someone’s name, or that I won’t be able to make small talk. Before I met my girlfriend’s parents, I spent a week worrying about what I would say and how I would act. First impressions count, and with my perfectionistic nature, it was important to me to make a good impression. Trying to do things perfectly often means that I do not do them quickly enough. Once, my perfectionism even cost me my summer job at a car wash. On my first day, I was issued a t-shirt with a slogan on the back: “If you can read this, I’m moving too slow.” My job was to detail the cars after they came out of the automated washer. I would wipe the water from the car and polish the tyres and rims, while my partner, Grady, cleaned the inside of the windows, polished the dash, and vacuumed the seats. Grady always finished before I did and had to help me with the rims and tyres. When the manager thought we weren’t working quickly enough, he would yell, “Hustle it up, guys!”, but, hurrying meant that dirt was left on the rims, watermarks on the car, and grey streaks on whitewalls, and my perfectionistic nature shrank from doing less than my best. I was forced to turn in my t-shirt before the month was over. Perfectionism also makes me my own worst critic. I know that others do not see me as negatively as I see myself. To my teachers, I seem like a serious student who usually does well. To my friends and acquaintances, I am a funny, likeable guy, and to their parents, I am a well-mannered young man. Even my boss at the car wash could not deny that I worked hard. But, I see only my failures. I see the questionI missed on a test, not the ones I answered correctly. I notice my social blunders, not the times when I handle myself well. Perfectionism magnifies my faults and shrinks my good qualities. It means that no matter how hard I try or how well I do, there is one person that I can never please – myself. Perfectionism affects my performance in high-pressure situations, the speed of my work, and the way I see myself. It may be true that nobody is perfect, but unfortunately, that has not stopped me from trying.. 48 | P a g e INFORMATION TRANSFER Transferring Information from Linear to Non-Linear Texts and Vice-Versa Linear texts comprise of information presented in written form like essays, articles, reports, etc. Example of a linear text: The graph shows the analysis of the SPM English Language results for the years 2000 to 2003. It shows that the percentage of passes has been increasing steadily, from about 87% in 2000 to 95% in 2003. The increasing trend in quality indicates that the standard of English of the pupils is getting better. Non-linear texts on the other hand, comprise bodies of information presented in more creative ways. They include pictures, graphs, diagrams, tables, charts, maps or photographs. Example of a non-linear text: Source: J. C. Lim (2001). MUET Coursebook (2nd Ed.). Subang Jaya: Pustaka Sarjana Sdn Bhd. 49 | P a g e Linear texts are often presented alongside non-linear texts in newspaper reports, research reports, advertisements, etc. This is because the latter presents information in more accessible andattractive ways, and so complements the former. Hence, it is important to know how to transfer information from linear texts to non-linear texts, and vice-versa. Writing based on Non-linear stimuli Task description You will be given a non-linear stimulus/stimuli (eg graph/chart). Your task is to describe the information given in the stimulus/stimuli by writing a 150-200 word report. You are not asked to give your opinion. What is being tested is your ability to: objectively describe the information given to you compare and contrast report on an impersonal topic without the use of opinion use the language of graph/chart description Guidelines for a good report: Does the report have a suitable structure? Does it have an introduction, body and conclusion? Does it include connective words to make the writing cohesive within sentences and paragraphs? Does the report use suitable grammar and vocabulary? Does it include a variety of sentence structures? Does it include a range of appropriate vocabulary? Does the report meet the requirements of the task? Does it meet the word limit requirements? Does it describe the whole stimulus/stimuli adequately? Does it focus on the important trends presented in the stimulus/stimuli? 50 | P a g e Sample 1: Double Line Graph Line graphs are used to show a trend or pattern which usually takes place over a period of time. It is important to look at the overall pattern on a line graph as well as the significant features within it. Task: The graph below compares the rate of smoking between men and women in Someland from 1960 to 2000. Write a report for a university lecturer comparing and describing the changes in the graph below. You should write between 150 to 200 words. Sample answer: Overview/Introduction The line graph compares the rate of smoking in men and women in Someland between the years 1960 and 2000. Overall Trend(s) Overall, it can be clearly seen that the rate of smoking for both men and women is declining and that fewer women have smoked throughout the period. Key features/Major In 1960, 600 men in every 1,000 were smoking. findings This number decreased gradually to 500 by 1974 and continued to decrease but more steeply to 250 in 2000. 51 | P a g e  Analysis and Synthesis of In contrast, the rate of smoking in women in 1960 Data was very low at only 80 in every 1,000. (Numbers/Trends/Changes) By 1968, this increased to 170, and increased again but more steeply to 320 in 1977. The rate of female smokers then remained stable at 320 until 1984 at which point, the figures began to decline and had dropped to 200 by 2000. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be seen that the rate of smoking in men dropped throughout the whole period but was always at a higher level compared to female smokers’ figures. On the other hand, the rate of smoking in women increased until 1977 but then declined for the rest of the 40-year period. 52 | P a g e Sample 2: Pie Charts Task: The pie charts below the percentages of world spending, world population and consumption of resources. Write a brief report by comparing and commenting on the patterns in the charts. You should write between 150 to 200 words. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Sample answer: Based on the given pie charts, Figure 1 shows the rate of world spending, Figure 2 shows the percentage of world population while Figure 3 shows the percentage of consumption of resources. In Figure 1, it can be seen that the highest percentage of world spending goes to “Other” with 40%. However, details of what ‘other’ covers are not provided. The second highest category in which people spend most of their income (24%) on is food. Transport and housing are the next major expenses at 18% and 12% respectively. Only 6% of income is spent on clothing. 53 | P a g e  In Figure 2, it is not surprising to find that 57% of people live in Asia as China and India are two of the most populated countries in the world and they are both situated in this continent. Europe and the Americans account for nearly 30% of the total, whilst 10% of people live in Africa. Finally, Figure 3 reveals that the USA and Europe consume a huge 60% of the world’s resources as opposed to other parts of the world with 40%. The latter mainly include Asian and African countries. To sum up, the major world expenditure is on food, the population figures are the highest for Asia but the major consumers of resources are USA and Europe. Sample 3: Bar Graph Task: The graph below gives information about the preferred leisure activities of Australian children. Write a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown. You should write in about 150 to 200 words. 54 | P a g e Sample answer: The graph shows the preferred leisure activities of Australian children aged 5-14. Of the 10,000 children that were interviewed, all the boys and girls stated that they enjoyed watching television or videos during their spare time. In addition, the second most popular activity, attracting 80% of boys and 60% of girls, was playing electronic or computer games. While girls rated activities such as art and craft highly, just under 60% stated that they enjoyed these in their spare time. Meanwhile, only 35% of boys opted for creative pastimes. Bike riding, on the other hand, was almost as popular as electronic games amongst boys and, perhaps surprisingly, almost 60% of girls said that they enjoyed this too. Skateboarding was relatively less popular amongst both boys and girls, although it still attracted 35% of boys and 25% of girls. To conclude, as might be expected, it is clear from the data that sedentary pursuits are far more popular nowadays than active ones. Sample 4: Graph/Chart/Table Combo Task: The line graph below shows the number of annual visits to Australia by overseas residents. The table below gives information on the country of origin where the visitors came from. Write a report for a university lecturer describing and integrating the information given. You should write between 150 to 200 words. 55 | P a g e  NUMBER OF VISITORS (million) 1975 2005 SOUTH KOREA 2.9 9.1 JAPAN 3.2 12.0 CHINA 0.3 0.8 USA 0.4 1.1 BRITAIN 0.9 2.9 EUROPE 1.1 4.5 Total 8.8 30.4 Sample answer: The given line graph illustrates information on the number of overseas visitors traveling to Australia whi