O.M - Prep for Test (1) PDF

Chapter 1: Introducing Organizational Behavior Q1. What is organizational behavior, and why is it important? Organizational behavior: - Study of human behavior in organizations - An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding individual and group behavior, interpersonal processes,...

Chapter 1: Introducing Organizational Behavior Q1. What is organizational behavior, and why is it important? Organizational behavior: - Study of human behavior in organizations - An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding individual and group behavior, interpersonal processes, and organizational dynamics Scientific methods models: - Simplified views of reality that attempt to identify significant factors and forces underlying real-world phenomena - Link presumed causes of events (Independent variables) with outcomes (dependent variables) Standard scientific research methods in organizational behavior - Field Studies - Laboratory studies - Case studies - Survey studies - Meta-analyses: use statistical pooling from many studies. This aggregating technique allows OB researchers to generalize and apply the conclusions to many OB situations Scientific thinking is vital to OB: - The process of data collection is controlled and systematic - Proposed explanations are carefully tested - Only explanations that can be scientifically verified are accepted Q2. What are organizations like as work settings? Organization: a collection of people working together in a division of labor to achieve a common purpose - The core purpose of an organization is the creation of goods and services - A mission statement defines an organization’s core purpose and aligns members’ actions with it Q3. What is the nature of managerial work? Q4. How do we learn about organizational behavior? Chapter 2.1: The Challenge of Effective Public Organization and Management The Challenge of Effective Public Organization and Management Organizations play crucial roles in society. ○ During the pandemic, both business and nonprofit organizations were essential. ○ Government, nonprofit, and private sectors often collaborate to provide goods and services. ○ Emphasis on collaboration, networking, partnerships, and contracts. Toward Improved Understanding and Management of Public Organizations There is a need for careful analysis of organizational and managerial issues in government. Public organizations are necessary and play an indispensable role in society. General Management and Public Management Public management can benefit from interdisciplinary literature. ○ Key Areas: Organizational Behavior Organization Theory Management Public Administration Economics Political Science The "generic tradition" treats public and private management similarly but lacks specific knowledge for public organizations. Issues in Education and Research There is extensive knowledge on management, but more analysis of differences between sectors needs to be improved. Graduate programs (MPAs) now emphasize management skills while recognizing sectoral differences. Ineffective Public Management? Complaints about public management inadequacies have increased interest in the field. Large bureaucracies significantly influence lives, posing challenges to effective operation and democratic control. Balancing effective operation with democratic control can create constraints for public administrators. Effective Public Management Some argue that public bureaucracies perform better than commonly believed. Evidence of effective performance by government organizations exists, challenging the notion that the private sector always performs better. Management involves balancing conflicting priorities, especially in public management. Organizations: A Definition and Conceptual Framework An organization is a group of people working together to achieve a goal. ○ They obtain and transform resources to meet goals. ○ They manage uncertainties through organized activities and established structures. Key Components: ○ Structures: Stable assignments and divisions (hierarchies, rules). ○ Processes: Dynamic elements like decision-making and communication. A Framework for Organizational Analysis Goals/Values: Chapters 6, 11 Leadership/Strategy: Chapters 7, 11 Culture: Chapter 11 Environments: Chapters 4, 5 Structures: Chapter 8 ○ Specialization, departmentalization, hierarchy, formalization. Processes: Chapters 7, 12, 13 ○ Power relationships, decision-making, communication. Organizational Performance/Effectiveness: Chapters 6, 14 Tasks/Technology: Chapter 8 People: Groups (Chapter 12), Individuals (Chapters 9, 10) Chapter 2.2: What makes public organization distinct? The distinction between public and private sectors can be misleading. ○ The generic tradition in organization theory often oversimplifies. ○ There is a blurring of sectors with mixed and hybrid forms. ○ Importance of avoiding oversimplifications in understanding organizational behavior. Findings from Research Major studies have aimed to develop typologies and taxonomies for organizations. Understanding the complexities of public organizations is crucial for effective management. Public and Private Organizations Evidence of Division Studies show a lack of strict division between public and private organizations. Pugh, Hickson, and Hinnings (1969) classified 58 organizations: ○ Only 8 were government organizations. ○ Predicted government organizations would be more bureaucratic, but this still needs to be confirmed. ○ Found that government organizations had more outside influence. Overall, studies on this topic could be more conclusive. Sector Blurring Public and private organizations have differences, but clear distinctions are complex. Various labels exist for organizations with both public and private characteristics: ○ Hybrids ○ Parapublic: Partly state-controlled. ○ QUANGOs: Quasi-non-governmental organizations. Definitions and Characteristics Hybrids: Entities created by the government for public policy purposes, owned partly by private individuals or corporations, and may generate revenue to cover costs (Koppell, 2003). Agencies: Organizations that perform public tasks independently from the government but still under some control (Van Thiel, 2012). Differences in Terminology The term "agencies" is used differently in the US and Europe: ○ In the US, it refers to traditional governmental units. ○ In Europe, "agencies" is more prominent, while "hybrids" is more common in the US. Agency Characteristics Agencies carry out similar tasks as government bureaucracies, such as: ○ Implementing policy. ○ Monitoring regulatory compliance (=규제 준수 모니터링).  Agencies experience less political influence and have more autonomy (자율성) in policymaking than government bureaucracies. Comparison of Agencies and Government Agencies are structurally separate from their parent government unit but still under formal control. They are generally more permanent than advisory committees but less permanent than government bureaucracies. (permanency: Advisory committees < Agencies < Government bureaucracies) Advisory committees: 특정 주제나 문제에 대한 전문가나 이해관계자들로 구성된 그룹으로, 주로 정부 기관, 기업, 혹은 비영리 (non-profit org) 조직에 의해 운영됨 Motivations for Creating Hybrids Hybrids can be used as policy tools to address economic issues: = 한국어 번역: 혼합 조직이 경제 문제를 해결하기 위한 정책 도구로 사용될 수 있다. 1) Rescue Operations: ○ Example: New Zealand's rescue of Air New Zealand to support tourism and jobs. ○ Example: US bailout of General Motors and Chrysler in 2008 to save over 1 million jobs. 2) Investment Initiatives: ○ Example: Singapore's investments in government-linked corporations post-independence (1965). 3) Public Service Access: ○ Example: Cambodia's Phnom Penh Water using government subsidies to provide affordable water. Agencification Types - Type 0 (National Agencies): 국가 기관; 중아 정부의 부서나 기관 - Type 1 (Semi-Autonomous Units): 준 자율 기관; 정부 내에서 운영되지만, 일부 자율성을 가진 기관 - Type 2 (Statutory Bodies): 법적 독립 기관; 법적으로 독립적인 기관으로, 법에 따라 운영됨 - Type 3 (Private Organizations): 민간 조직; 정부를 대신해 설립된 민간 기업으로, 정부가 대주주인경우 - Type 4 (Regional Bodies): 지역 기관; 지역 정부나 자치단체 (local gov; municipality)가 맡은 업무 - Type 5 (others): 기타; 위에 나열되지 않은 다른 유형의 기관 Agencies, Enterprises, and Hybrid Organizations There is a continuum (연속체) between government ownership and private ownership: Continuum (연속체): 정부 소유와 민간 소유는 뚜렷하게 나뉘어 있는 것이 아니라, 그 사이에 다양한 형태가 존재한다는 것을 나타냄 ○ Below the line: Public or government-owned; 정부가 완전히 소유하고 운영하는 형태 ○ Above the line: Private enterprise: 정부의 소유가 아닌, 개인이나 민간 단체가 소유하고 운영하는 형태 ○ On the line: Neither public nor private; 공공과 민간의 혼합 형태일 수 있습니다. Functional Analogies Hospitals and schools can perform similar functions regardless of being labeled private or public. New Public Management (NPM) advocates for government business procedures. Complex Interrelations Governments arrange for services through private organizations: ○ Vouchers, franchises, grants. Private corporations may handle aspects of government programs like Medicare. Governments use laws and regulations to influence private organizations. Importance of Avoiding Oversimplifications Clear demarcations (구분;경계) between public and private organizations are challenging. Critics claiming public organizations are less efficient should consider these complexities. Public Organizations: An Essential Distinction The purpose of public organizations involves addressing market failures: ○ Limited buyers or sellers. ○ Public goods and free riders. ○ Information asymmetry. ○ Externalities or spillovers. Political Rationales for Government State Action Doctrine: Claims for constitutional rights violations can only be made against a "state actor." This doctrine is rooted in the Bill of Rights in the US Constitution. = 헌법적 권리 침해가 발생했을 때, 그 침해를 주장 할 수 있는 대상은 오직 정부나 공공 기관임 Public Management and Value Government Action and State Actors Government action is primarily regulated and restricted by law. Exceptions: ○ A private individual or business can become a state actor under certain conditions. ○ The state may be held jointly liable for actions taken by private individuals or businesses. Inherently Governmental Functions Definition: Government personnel must perform certain functions, not private employees. Key Legislation: ○ FAIR Act of 1998: Mandates specific government functions. - 이 법은 정부의 효율성을 높이고, 세금 낭비를 줄이며, 민간 부문 참여를 촉직하는 데 기여하고자 했음 ○ OMB A-76: Outlines which functions are inherently governmental. Example: Only government personnel can establish policy; private contractors can only implement it. - 이 지침은 정부 기관이 어떤 기능을 민간에 위탁할 수 있는지를 명확하여, 자원의 휼적인 사용을 도모함 Public Value Concept Origin: Mark Moore's "Creating Public Value" (1995). Core Idea: Public managers create value by producing outputs desired by citizens. Key Points: ○ Value is based on individual desires and perceptions, not just societal abstractions. ○ Public managers must understand and interact with the authorizing environment. ○ The legitimacy of government authority is tied to meeting citizens' expectations for justice, fairness, efficiency, and effectiveness. Public Value Failure  Definition: The gap between citizens' preferences and actual public policy. Examples: ○ Strong public support for gun control without corresponding policies. ○ Market situations that threaten human dignity, such as the sale of organs by impoverished individuals. Accenture Public Sector Value Model Explanation: Public value arises from the outcomes of government activities and their cost-effectiveness. Outcomes: A weighted basket of social achievements. Ownership and Funding in Public Organizations Public Ownership: Funded by taxes and government contracts. ○ Examples: Department of Defense, Social Security Administration, Police Departments. Private Ownership: Funded by sales and private donations. ○ Examples: General Motors, IBM, Grocery store chains. Economic and Political Authority Economic Authority: ○ Ranges from privately managed firms to government agencies funded by taxes. Political Authority: ○ Involves a complex hierarchy of contending groups and institutions. Mixed Intermediate Organizations Typology: Organizations can be classified based on ownership, funding, and mode of social control. ○ Examples: Government corporations Regulated enterprises Private enterprises Problems in Public-Private Comparisons Challenges: 1. Controlling for size and task differences. 2. Difficulty in obtaining large representative samples.  Research Approaches: 1. Theoretical assumptions and past literature. 2. Interviews with executives from both sectors. 3. Comparisons within functional categories (e.g., hospitals, schools). 4. Census data and national studies. Other Issues in Public-Private Comparisons Accountability varies by organization type. = 한국어 번역: 조직의 유형에 따라 책임이 다름 Questions arise about the nature of organizations: ○ Is a defense contractor private if all revenues come from the government? ○ Is a government enterprise "public" if it can be publicly traded? ○ Is an independent agency less governmental than a traditional agency? Chapter 3: Machiavellianism and Pragmatic Behavior Personality and Individual Differences The Importance of Individual Differences Individual Differences: Refers to the behavioral and cognitive similarities and differences among people. Significance: Understanding these differences helps analyze why coworkers behave as they do. Key Aspects: ○ Self-awareness: Understanding your own feelings, behaviors, and personality. ○ Awareness of Others: Recognizing others' feelings, behaviors, and personalities. Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy Self-concept: How we perceive ourselves. Self-esteem: ○ High self-esteem: Confidence and a strong sense of self-worth. ○ Low self-esteem: Self-doubt and a negative self-image. Self-efficacy: Belief in our ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations. Nature Versus Nurture Personality: A stable and unique pattern of traits and behaviors that define an individual. Understanding different personalities aids in comprehending behaviors and motivations. The Trait Theories of Personality Overview Personality Traits: Characteristics that describe thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Key Theories 1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): ○ A psychometric tool that evaluates four psychological preferences leading to 16 personality types. ○ Preferences: 1. Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I): Outgoing vs. reserved. 2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N): Concrete information vs. imaginative insights. 3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): Logic vs. personal values in decision-making. 4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): Preference for structure vs. flexibility. 2. Eysenck’s Personality Theory: ○ Focuses on traits influenced by genetics: 1. Introversion/Extroversion 2. Neuroticism (신경증적 성향)/Stability (안정성) 3. Self-Control (자기 통제)/Psychoticism (정신병적 성향) 3. Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors: ○ A model with 16 distinct personality traits, assessed through the 16 PF Questionnaire. 4. Big Five Model: “OCEAN” ○ Describes five basic dimensions of personality: 1. Extraversion: Outgoing and sociable. 2. Agreeableness: Trusting and cooperative. 3. Conscientiousness: Organized and responsible. 4. Neuroticism: Tense and moody. 5. Openness to Experience: Curious and creative. Criticisms of MBTI Simplistic view of personality, often categorizing individuals too rigidly (엄격하게).  Questions regarding reliability and validity of results. Core Self-Evaluation (CSE) A concept that encompasses self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional stability, and locus of control, reflecting how individuals evaluate themselves. Core Self-Evaluations and Personality Theories Core Self-Evaluations (CSE) CSE refers to how people assess their own abilities, self-worth, control, and capabilities. It includes four main dimensions: 1. Locus of Control: Belief in personal influence over events. 2. Emotional Stability: Ability to remain stable and balanced. 3. Self-Efficacy: Confidence in one's own abilities. 4. Self-Esteem: Overall sense of self-worth. Example Individuals with high CSE view themselves positively and are confident in their skills. Conversely, those with low CSE often lack confidence and have negative self-perceptions. Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control: Belief that one can control events and is responsible for outcomes. External Locus of Control: Belief that outcomes are determined by external factors beyond one's control. HEXACO Model of Personality An alternative to the Big Five model, adding a sixth dimension: 1. Honesty-Humility (H) 2. Emotionality (E) 3. Extraversion (X) 4. Agreeableness (A)  5. Conscientiousness (C) 6. Openness to Experience (O) Person-Job Fit and Person-Organization Fit Person-Job Fit: Matching skills and experiences to job requirements. Person-Organization Fit (P-O Fit): Compatibility between employees and the organization. Character Strengths Positive qualities that benefit oneself and others, such as: ○ Wisdom ○ Courage ○ Gratitude Common Character Assessments 1. VIA Survey of Character Strengths: Measures 24 strengths in 6 categories. 2. DiSC Assessment: Focuses on four personality profiles: ○ Dominance (D): Confident and strong-willed. ○ Influence (i): Open and relationship-focused. ○ Steadiness (S): Reliable and values cooperation. ○ Conscientiousness (C): Focuses on quality and accuracy. 3. CliftonStrengths Assessment: Identifies strengths through 34 themes in four domains. Other Personality Attributes Self-Monitoring: Adjusting behavior based on the situation. ○ High self-monitors adapt their behavior. ○ Low self-monitors are true to themselves regardless of the situation. Proactive Personality: Initiative to change circumstances. ○ High proactive individuals seek change. ○ Low proactive individuals accept the status quo. Type A/Type B Orientation: ○ Type A: Competitive, aggressive, and achievement-oriented. ○ Type B: Relaxed, easygoing, and patient. Risk-Taking Propensity: ○ High Risk-Takers: Make quick decisions with less information. ○ Low Risk-Takers: Take time to gather information but may struggle with indecision. The Dark Triad:  ○ Narcissism: Excessive self-focus and entitlement. ○ Psychopathy: Lack of empathy and remorse. ○ Machiavellianism: Manipulative behavior for personal gain. Individual Differences in Organizational Behavior Ruthlessness and Machiavellianism Definition of Ruthlessness (무자비함) Ruthlessness refers to a lack of compassion or pity for others. It often involves being willing to do whatever it takes to achieve one's goals, regardless of the consequences for others. Characteristics of Machiavellianism (교활함) People with high levels of Machiavellianism tend to exhibit the following traits: ○ Pragmatism: They focus on practical results rather than moral considerations. ○ Lying: They may resort to deceit to achieve their objectives. ○ Influence: They are skilled at persuading and manipulating others. ○ Emotional Distance: They can detach themselves from conventional moral standards, allowing them to act without guilt. Implications in Organizational Behavior Understanding these traits can help in recognizing behaviors in workplace dynamics. It is important to be aware of how such characteristics can impact team interactions and decision-making processes. Chapter 4: Promoting a DEI Culture Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) Overview of DEI  Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI): Programs and policies that promote the representation and participation of diverse groups. ○ Includes various dimensions such as: Genders Races and ethnicities Abilities and disabilities Religions and cultures Ages Sexual orientations Backgrounds and experiences Importance: ○ Today's workplaces are more diverse than ever due to globalization. ○ Diverse teams can lead to better performance, innovation, and productivity. Key Concepts in DEI 1. Stereotyping: ○ The tendency is to assume that all group members share the same characteristics. 2. Discrimination: ○ Unfair treatment of individuals based on specific characteristics. Diversity in the Workplace Definition: ○ Diversity refers to the presence of differences within a setting. ○ Workplace diversity involves recognizing and valuing individual and group differences. Benefits: ○ Diverse groups perform better and are more innovative. ○ Increases market share by improving communication with diverse customers. Types of Diversity 1. Surface-Level Diversity: ○ Easily perceived differences (e.g., age, race, gender). ○ Can lead to discrimination if judgments are made based on these superficial traits. 2. Deep-Level Diversity: ○ Involves attitudes, beliefs, and values that are not immediately visible. ○ Recognizing deep-level differences fosters better understanding and collaboration. Age/Generation Diversity Workforce Demographics: ○ Organizations are increasingly including people of all ages. Generational Groups: ○ Traditionalists (born before 1946) ○ Baby Boomers (1946 – 1964) ○ Generation X (1965 – 1981) ○ Millennials (1982 – 2000) ○ Generation Z (1998 – 2016) Challenges: ○ Stereotypes about age can hinder commitment and professional growth. Race and Ethnicity Race: ○ Related to physical appearance (e.g., skin color). Ethnicity: ○ Associated with sociological factors (e.g., culture, language). Awareness: ○ Understanding the history of racial and ethnic discrimination is crucial for workplace harmony. Gender Diversity Definition: ○ Equal representation of men, women, and nonbinary individuals. Challenges: ○ Despite progress, issues like the glass ceiling and gender pay gap persist. ○ Women often earn less than men for comparable roles. Sexual Orientation Definition: ○ Refers to a person's sexual identity. Statistics: ○ As of 2021, approximately 5.6% of adults identify as LGBTQ+. Conclusion Understanding DEI is essential for fostering an inclusive workplace. Recognizing and valuing diversity leads to better organizational performance and a more equitable environment for all employees. Diversity in the Workplace Ability Diversity (능력 다양성) Definition: The representation of individuals with varying mental and physical abilities in an organization. Importance: Selecting employees whose abilities align with job roles enhances productivity and job satisfaction. Statistics: ○ Over 60 million people in the U.S. have disabilities that limit major life activities. ○ Only 17.9% of these individuals are employed. ○ Unemployment rates for people with disabilities increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Legal Framework for Diversity 1. Affirmative Action: ○ Initiated by the 1964 Civil Rights Act. ○ Requires organizations to take proactive steps to counteract discrimination against underrepresented groups. 2. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): ○ Protects against discrimination based on disability. 3. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC): ○ Enforces federal laws against job discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age (40+), disability, or genetic information. Diversity and Identity Intersectionality Definition: Different forms of discrimination (race, gender, etc.) can overlap. Example: Not all women experience discrimination the same way; white women may face different challenges compared to women of color. Microaggressions (미세한 공격)  Definition: Subtle, often unintentional, verbal or behavioral slights against a person or group. Example: A white person saying to a person of color, "You're so articulate!" implies surprise at their ability to speak well. Impact: These can be harmful and stigmatizing, especially for those with intersectional identities. Stigmatized Identities (낙인 찍힌 정체성) Definition: Concealable (숨길수 있는) identities that individuals may hide to avoid discrimination. Examples: Sexual orientation, religion, mental illness. Behavior: Individuals may choose not to disclose these identities due to fear of stigma. Stereotype Threat Definition: The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group. Effects: Can lead to decreased motivation, low confidence, and poor engagement. Mitigation: Organizations can reduce this threat by: ○ Challenging negative stereotypes. ○ Creating support groups. ○ Providing training to improve communication. Equity and Equality in the Workplace Equity (형평성): Ensuring fair processes and access to opportunities for all employees. Equality (평등): Providing the same resources and opportunities to everyone, regardless of need. Examples: ○ Equality: All schools having the same number of computers. ○ Equity: More computer labs in lower-income neighborhoods to address specific needs. Inclusion Definition: Creating a workplace where everyone feels welcomed and valued. Characteristics: ○ Employees are involved in decision-making. ○ A culture of empathy and mutual respect is fostered. Promoting a DEI Culture Failure to Reduce Bias Bias: Prejudice against a person or group. Implicit Bias: Unconscious stereotypes that affect perceptions. Challenge: Traditional DEI programs often fail to reduce bias effectively. Effective Strategies Voluntary Training: Studies suggest that voluntary training can be more effective in reducing bias than mandatory programs. Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Overview Promoting a DEI Culture Dos and Don'ts of DEI Training Do encourage voluntary participation in DEI training. ○ People are more open to learning when they choose to participate. Don't force DEI training on individuals. ○ This can lead to resistance and a lack of engagement. Ways to Reduce Bias 1. Eliminate Antiquated (시대에 뒤떨어진; 구시의) Hiring Tests ○ Traditional tests may highlight biases instead of reducing them. 2. Implement Equitable Recruitment Programs ○ Target diverse colleges and universities for recruitment. ○ This motivates managers to engage actively in the hiring process. 3. Encourage Mentoring ○ Managers should coach and sponsor individuals from different backgrounds. ○ This helps reduce biases by fostering relationships across diverse groups. 4. Connect Diverse Groups Through Storytelling ○ Storytelling can change perspectives and promote inclusion. ○ It has a lasting impact on reducing prejudice. 5. Collect, Count, and Compare DEI Data ○ This increases accountability (책임감) and transparency within organizations.  6. Hire for DEI at Senior Levels ○ DEI modeling should start at the top of the organization. ○ A diverse range of senior decision-makers brings various opinions and perspectives. Organizations can create a more inclusive and equitable environment by following these guidelines. Chapter 4.1: Perception and Learning in Organizations Perception and Learning in Organizational Behavior Case Study: Twitter’s Adaptability Evan Williams' Decision: Engage employees with new business ideas to foster creativity and innovation. Employee Empowerment, Adaptability, and On-the-Job Training: ○ Empowerment encourages employees to take the initiative. ○ Adaptability is crucial for responding to change. ○ On-the-job training (현장 교육) enhances skills and supports adaptability. Perception: Interpreting Our Environment Definition: Perception is how we receive and interpret information from our surroundings. Importance: Managing perceptions is vital for a healthy organizational culture. Components of the Selection Process 1. Perceiver: Influenced by past experiences, culture, and values. 2. Environment: The context affects how we perceive situations. 3. Focal Object: The subject of perception (person, event, etc.) impacts our interpretation. Why Is Perception Important? People act based on their perceptions, not reality (Kurt Lewin, 1936). Understanding perception is vital to understanding behavior and relationships in the workplace. Common Perceptual Distortions Stereotypes: Fixed beliefs about a group. Selective Attention: Focusing on aspects that align with personal interests. Halo Effect (후광 효과): Bias based on overall impressions. Primacy Effect: Quick assessments based on first impressions. Recency Effect: Assessments based on the most recent information. Contrast Effect: Ranking influenced by recent events. Projecting: Ascribing personal attributes to others. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Behaving in ways that confirm expectations. Impression Management (IM): Influencing how others perceive us. ○ Ingratiation: Gaining favor before making requests. Common Attribution Errors Attribution Theory: Explains behavior through internal (personal) and external (situational) causes. Factors Influencing Attributions: 1. Consistency: Repeated behavior over time. 2. Distinctiveness: Behavior in similar situations. 3. Consensus: How others behave in the same situation. Key Errors Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating internal factors and underestimating external factors in others' behavior. Self-Serving Bias: Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors. Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory Learning: Adjusting behavior based on experience. Classical Conditioning Developed by Ivan Pavlov; learning through stimuli. Operant Conditioning Forming associations between behavior and consequences. Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant results will likely be repeated. Reinforcement Theory  Reinforcement: Applying consequences to shape behavior. Organizational Behavior Modification: Using behavioral techniques to encourage positive work behavior. Learning Processes: Behavioral Theory Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: Encourages behavior by providing positive consequences. Negative Reinforcement: Encourages behavior by removing negative consequences. Punishment Punishment: Discourages undesirable behavior through unpleasant consequences or removing positive ones. ○ Positive Punishment: Adding unpleasant consequences. ○ Negative Punishment: Removing pleasant consequences. Extinction: Reduces the likelihood of behavior by not providing any consequences. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement: Behavior is rewarded every time it occurs. Intermittent (일시적인) Reinforcement: Behavior is not rewarded every time. 1. Fixed Interval Schedule: Reward after a specific time period. 2. Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reward after a fixed number of behaviors. 3. Variable Interval Schedule: Reward at varying times. 4. Variable Ratio Schedule: Reward after a varying number of behaviors. Learning Processes: The Cognitive View Social Cognitive Theory Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling within a social context. Cognitive processes (awareness, perception, reasoning, judgment) are crucial for learning. Employees often model the behavior of their managers. Key Aspects of Social Cognitive Theory Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific tasks. Vicarious (간접적인) Learning: Learning by observing others; important for knowledge sharing in organizations. Self-regulation: Setting goals to create a gap between desired and current states. Triadic Reciprocal Model of Behavior This model illustrates that human functioning is shaped by three interrelated factors: ○ Reinforcement ○ Cognitive Processes ○ Behavior Chapter 4.2: Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress Management Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress in Organizational Behavior Emotions in Organizational Behavior Affects: A broad term covering a range of feelings, including emotions and moods. Emotions: Intense feelings directed at a specific object or person; usually short-lived. Mood: Less intense, generalized feelings not directed at a specific object; lasts longer than emotions. Mood Dimensions 1. Positive Affect: Excitement, cheerfulness, etc. 2. Negative Affect: Boredom, lethargy, etc. Influences on Moods and Emotions Factors like sleep, exercise, weather, and stress can affect moods and emotions. Emotions can evolve into moods when the initial cause is forgotten. = 한국어 번역: 어떤 사건이나 상황이 발생했을 때 느꼈던 강렬한 감정이 시간이 지나면서 그 사건을 잊게 되면, 그 감정이 지속되어 기분으로 발전할 수 있다는 뜻입니다. 예. 친구와의 다툼 후에 느꼈던 화가 시간이 지나면서 잊혀지지만, 여전히 기분이 좋지 않거나 우울한 상태가 계속될 수 있습니다. Emotions in the Workplace Emotional State: Crucial for decision-making; seeking help can lead to calmer, more rational thinking. Emotional Contagion: Emotions can spread among individuals; negative emotions spread faster than positive ones. Emotional Labor: Managing feelings to present positive emotions, even when they differ from actual feelings. Emotional Labor Techniques 1. Surface Acting: Suppressing true feelings to display desirable ones. 2. Deep Acting: Changing emotions to align with required emotions. Emotional Regulation Emotional Regulation: Influencing one's own emotions and expressions. Regulation Strategies: ○ Antecedent-focused: Prevent strong emotional responses. ○ Response-focused: Prevent outward expressions of emotion. Emotional Intelligence (EI) Definition: Ability to understand and manage emotions in oneself and others. Four Dimensions of EI: 1. Self-Awareness: Understanding your own emotions. 2. Self-Management: Controlling and regulating emotions. 3. Social Awareness: Perceiving and empathizing with others' emotions. 4. Relationship Management: Managing others' emotions to build strong relationships. Attitudes and Behavior Attitude: A learned tendency to respond positively or negatively to people or events; shapes behavior. Three Elements of Attitude: 1. Cognitive Appraisal: Beliefs and knowledge about a specific object, person, or event. 2. Affective Evaluation: Positive and negative feelings toward a specific object, person, or event. 3. Behavioral Intention: Likelihood of behaving in a certain way toward a specific object, person, or event. Cognitive Dissonance Definition: Stress and discomfort from inconsistencies among beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors. Resolution: Striving to reconcile dissonant beliefs may not always be rational. = 한국어 번역: 사람들은 서로 모순되는 믿음이나 생각을 조화롭게 만들기 위해 노력하지만, 이 과정이 항상 논리적이거나 이성적이지 않을 수 있다는 것입니다. 예. 어떤 사람은 자신의 건강을 생각하면서도 여전히 불건전한 음식을 먹으며 그 이유를 합리화하려고 할 수 있습니다. 이 과정에서 비이성적인 결정을 내릴 수도 있다는 뜻입니다. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Personal Stress: How does personal stress affect starting and managing an organization? How can it be confronted? 2. Management Strategies: What can management do to relieve a demanding atmosphere, and why is it important? 3. Managing Stress and Attitude: Does managing one's own stress and attitude influence the management of others? Explain. Common Workplace Attitudes Attitudes brought to the workplace are critical for various areas, influencing interactions and overall work environment. Job Satisfaction and Employee Engagement Job Satisfaction Definition: The degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about their job. Importance: High job satisfaction can lead to better performance and lower turnover rates. Employee Engagement Definition: A connection with the organization and passion for the job. Relationship: Job satisfaction and job performance are significantly related. Organizational Commitment Definition: Discretionary (어떤 결정이나 행동이 규정이나 강제에 의해 제한되지 않고, 개인의 판단이나 선택에 의존한다는 뜻) and voluntary behavior that is not part of the employee’s specific role requirements and is not formally rewarded. Stress in the Workplace Definition of Stress Stress is a response that occurs when a person perceives a situation as threatening to their well-being or when their resources have been exceeded. Types of Stressors 1. Challenge Stressors ○ Associated with workload, job demands, job complexity, and deadlines. ○ Positively related to motivation and performance. 2. Hindrance Stressors ○ Inhibit progress toward objectives. ○ Examples include: Role ambiguity or conflict: 자신의 역할이 명확하지 않거나 동료와의 갈등으로 안한 스트레스  Hassles: 일상적인 불현함이나 사소한 문제들로 인한 스트레스 Red tape: 지나치게 복잡한 절차나 규정으로 인한 스트레스 Highly political environments: 직장에서의 정치적 갈등이나 경쟁으로 인한 스트레스 Causes of Stress in the Workplace Inability to cope with work demands Lack of control over how one works Insufficient information and support Conflict in working relationships Poor understanding of one’s role and responsibilities Lack of engagement during organizational changes Stress - Strain - Outcomes Model Hindrance stressors lead to strain (스트레스 또는 긴장; 신체적 또는 정식적 부담). Strain reactions include physiological and psychological responses. Strain reactions can persist, potentially damaging physical or psychological health. Stress-Related Outcomes and Employee Well-Being Good Stress vs. Bad Stress Good Stress (Eustress) ○ Moderate level of stressors with positive effects (e.g., working out, achieving deadlines, competing in sports). Bad Stress (Distress) ○ Includes physiological and psychological elements. ○ Can lead to job burnout. Coping Strategies Ways to manage stress include: ○ Meditation ○ Deep breathing ○ Being present  ○ Reaching out for support ○ Exercise These notes summarize key concepts related to job satisfaction, employee engagement, and stress in the workplace, providing a clear understanding of their definitions, types, causes, and outcomes. Chapter 5.1: Motivation Theories in Organizational Behavior Motivation: Concepts and Theoretical Perspectives Overview of Motivation Motivation: Internal forces that drive individuals to achieve goals. Process of Motivation: ○ Energized: The strength to persist despite challenges. ○ Directed: Focused efforts that benefit both the individual and the employer. ○ Maintained: Sustained intention to work towards objectives. Case Study: AriZona Iced Tea Beverage Market in 1992: Competitive landscape with established brands. Differentiation: Unique branding and product offerings helped AriZona stand out. Merchant Retention: Despite low margins, merchants valued AriZona's brand loyalty and customer demand. Needs Theories Categories of Needs Theories 1. Content Theories: Focus on what motivates individuals. ○ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: PSSES Levels: Physiological \to Safety \to Love/Belonging \to Esteem \to Self-Actualization ○ Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Categories: Existence \to Relatedness \to Growth (can be satisfied simultaneously). ○ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Hygiene Factors: Salary, status, security (prevent dissatisfaction).  - 불만족을 방지하는 요인. 기본적인 필요를 충족시키지만, 이 요인만으로는 만족감을 주지 않음 Motivators: Achievement, recognition, responsibility (increase satisfaction). ○ McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory: Needs shaped over time: Need Achievement (nAch), Need for Affiliation (nAff), Need for Power (nPow) 2. Process Theories: Focus on how needs influence behavior. ○ Equity Theory: Motivation based on perceived fairness (O/I ratio). ○ Goal-Setting Theory: Motivation through clear, challenging goals and feedback. Money as a Motivator Money addresses lower-level needs but is not the most effective motivator. Goal-Setting Theory Developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham. Key Elements: ○ Clear Goals: Specific and well-defined (S.M.A.R.T. goals). ○ Difficult Goals: Challenging yet achievable goals yield better performance. ○ Goal Acceptance: Commitment to goals enhances motivation. ○ Feedback: Regular feedback increases motivation. Equity Theory Perceptions of fairness influence motivation. O/I Ratio: Comparison of outcomes to inputs. ○ Responses to Inequity: 1. Change inputs (reduce effort). 2. Change outcomes (request a raise). 3. Cognitive reevaluation (adjust perceptions). 4. Pick another comparison (choose a different coworker). 5. Leave the field (quit if inequity is severe). Organizational Justice Distributive Justice: Fairness in outcomes. Procedural Justice: Fairness in processes and procedures. Summary Understanding motivation involves recognizing the internal forces that drive behavior, the theories that explain what motivates individuals, and the importance of fairness and goal-setting in the workplace. Organizational Justice and Expectancy Theory Organizational Justice Fair Allocation of Outcomes: Refers to how fairly people perceive the distribution of rewards and resources. Types of Justice 1. Procedural Justice: ○ Definition: The fairness of the processes and procedures used to make decisions. ○ Importance: Affects how employees view the legitimacy of the outcomes. 2. Interpersonal Justice: ○ Definition: The respect and dignity employees receive from supervisors during changes. ○ Importance: Influences employee morale and trust in leadership. 3. Informational Justice: ○ Definition: The access to information and explanations regarding decisions. ○ Importance: Transparency helps employees understand the rationale behind decisions. Expectancy Theory Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: Suggests that individuals choose behaviors based on expected outcomes. Key Components 1. Expectancy: ○ Definition: The belief that effort will lead to performance. ○ Example: If an employee believes that working harder will improve their performance, they are more likely to put in the effort.  2. Instrumentality: ○ Definition: The belief that performance will lead to specific outcomes. ○ Example: If an employee thinks that good performance will result in a promotion, they are motivated to perform well. 3. Valence: ○ Definition: The value an individual places on the expected outcomes. ○ Example: If an employee highly values a promotion, they will be more motivated to work towards it. Summary Expectancy Theory emphasizes the relationship between effort, performance, and outcomes, guiding how individuals make choices in a work environment. Understanding organizational justice can enhance employee satisfaction and performance by ensuring fairness in processes and outcomes. Chapter 5.2: Motivation: Practices and Applications Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal rewards. ○ Need for Competence: Satisfaction from using and improving skills. ○ Need for Self-Determination: Satisfaction from making choices without external influence. Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards. ○ Expectation of Reward: Working for a reward. ○ Avoidance of Punishment: Working to prevent negative outcomes. Types of Extrinsic Rewards 1. Seniority-Based Pay: Pay increases based on time spent in the organization. 2. Job Content-Based Pay: Pay based on the job's value to the organization. 3. Skill-Based Pay: Rewards for acquiring new skills. 4. Performance-Based Pay: Financial incentives for meeting specific goals. ○ Individual-Level: Piece Rate: Fixed pay per unit produced. Merit Pay: Pay increases linked to performance. Bonus: Additional pay for good performance. ○ Team and Organization-Level:  Gain Sharing: Sharing cost savings with employees. Profit Sharing: Sharing profits with employees. Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs): Employees can buy company stock at a discount. Motivation Over Time Middle-aged employees may struggle with fluid intelligence but perform better in roles requiring crystallized intelligence. Stronger rewards may be necessary to motivate aging employees in certain jobs. Motivation Through Job Design Job Design: Structuring job duties to improve productivity. ○ Originates from Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor. Approaches to Job Design 1. Job Enlargement: Increasing the range of tasks. 2. Job Rotation: Moving employees between jobs periodically. 3. Job Enrichment: Making jobs more complex and satisfying. Job Characteristics Model Key characteristics: ○ Skill Variety ○ Task Identity ○ Task Significance ○ Autonomy ○ Feedback Higher scores in these characteristics lead to better psychological outcomes. Psychological Empowerment Psychological Empowerment: Feeling fulfilled and believing work contributes to a larger purpose. ○ Factors: Competence: Ability to perform tasks successfully. Self-Determination: Understanding skills and making choices. Impact: Ability to influence outcomes. Meaningfulness: Value of work tasks aligned with personal ideals. Nontraditional Work Schedules Free Agents: Independent workers providing short-term talent. Freelancers: Work for multiple employers on a limited basis. Part-Time Workers: Provide part-time talent for projects. Case Study: Spotify GreenHouse Team: Promotes psychological empowerment through learning and development. Growth Mindset: Stimulates intrinsic motivation through job design. Swedish-Inspired Extrinsic Rewards: Validate competence and self-determination, boosting intrinsic motivation. These notes summarize the key concepts related to motivation in organizational behavior, focusing on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, job design, psychological empowerment, and nontraditional work schedules. Nontraditional Work Schedules Overview Nontraditional work schedules provide flexibility for employees, allowing them to balance work and personal life. These schedules can include various arrangements that differ from the standard 9-to-5 workday. Types of Nontraditional Work Schedules 1. Flextime ○ Customized work hours. ○ Employees can choose their own work hours within limits set by management. 2. Compressed Workweeks ○ Employees work their usual number of hours in fewer days. ○ This arrangement often results in an extra day off. 3. Job Sharing ○ One job is divided among two or more people. ○ Job sharers can pass their work to the next person at the end of their shift. 4. Remote Work ○ Employees work from a location other than the main office, often from home.  ○ This includes telecommuting, which uses telecommunications to connect to the office. Pros and Cons of Working Remotely Pros Flexible Work Schedule: Employees can choose when to work. No Commute: Saves time and reduces stress. More Time with Family: Allows for better family engagement. Ability to Work from Any Location: Increases mobility and comfort. Better Work/Life Balance: Helps manage personal and professional responsibilities. Cons Difficulty Unplugging from Work: Hard to separate work from personal time. Loneliness: Lack of social interaction with colleagues. Technical Issues: Dependence on technology can lead to problems. Distractions from Home: Home environment may not be conducive to work. Difficulty Staying Motivated: Less supervision can lead to decreased productivity. These nontraditional work schedules are becoming more common as companies seek to meet the diverse needs of their employees. Chapter 7: Ethics and Social Responsibility overview Ethics and Social Responsibility in Organizations Ethics in Organizations Definition: Ethics refers to moral principles that guide behavior. Importance of Studying Ethics: ○ It's the right thing to do. ○ It's the smart thing to do. Unethical Organizations An organization is considered unethical if it: ○ Violates basic rights of employees. ○ Ignores health, safety, and environmental standards.  ○ Engages in current ethical debates, such as those surrounding artificial intelligence (e.g., Google’s ethics board for AI). Ethical Dilemmas Ethical dilemmas often lack clear answers. ○ Example: Witnessing a friend cheating on an exam. Ethical Decision-Making Key Concept: Consistently choosing to do the right thing. Ethical Decision-Making Approaches 1. Utilitarian Approach: Focus on the greater good for the majority. 2. Rights Approach: Respect for human dignity. 3. Justice Approach: Base decisions on fairness. Contemporary Views Moral Compass: Consists of four lenses: 1. Is this action worthwhile? 2. Does this action comply with company principles? 3. What impact does this action have on others? 4. Has this action been approved by the right authority? Foursquare Protocol: Involves: 1. Gathering all the facts. 2. Reflecting on past experiences. 3. Identifying differences between the present and the past. 4. Analyzing the situation. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Stages: 1. Pre-conventional morality. 2. Conventional morality. 3. Post-conventional morality. CHARACTER COUNTS! Program Six Pillars of Character: ○ Trustworthiness ○ Respect ○ Responsibility  ○ Fairness ○ Caring ○ Citizenship Ethical Leadership and Followership Challenges: ○ Leaders may misuse power and privilege. ○ CEOs are held to higher accountability. ○ Leaders have more access to information than followers. Leader Responsibilities Treat everyone with respect and avoid favoritism. Act in the best interests of followers. Ethical Challenges of Followers Obligation: Followers should have a strong alliance to the organization and leaders. Obedience: Followers should carry out demands to further the organizational mission. Cynicism: Followers may become cynical over time. Dissent (반대): Followers should have opportunities to express dissent. Bad News: Followers should have a forum to report bad news. Social Responsibility Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): ○ 60% of customers consider sustainability when buying from a company (2021 Global Sustainability Study). Carroll’s Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility 1. Philanthropic: Be a good corporate citizen: 사회 기여 2. Ethical: Be an ethical organization: 도덕적 행동 3. Legal: Follow the law: 법 준수 4. Economic: Turn a profit: 이윤 창출 Social Entrepreneurs vs. Traditional Entrepreneurs Traditional Entrepreneurs: Aim to make a profit. Social Entrepreneurs: Aim to tackle social and environmental problems for social change. Building Ethical and Socially Responsible Organizations Organizational Components: ○ Core values ○ Mission statements ○ Code of ethics ○ Structure ○ Boards of directors ○ Reward and performance evaluation systems ○ Reporting and communication systems ○ Ethics officers Ethical Learning Methods: ○ Experiential ethics training ○ Reflection ○ Postmortem and premortem group discussions ○ Volunteer service ○ Mentorship programs Chapter 8.1: Effective Workplace Communication Strategies Effective Communication in the Workplace The Need for Effective Communication Definition: Communication is the act of transmitting thoughts, processes, and ideas through various channels. Importance: Effective communication is crucial for collaboration, understanding, and productivity in the workplace. Communication Channels Types of Communication Channels 1. Oral Communication ○ Description: Exchange of information verbally (one-on-one or group). ○ Advantages: Instant feedback and clarification. Builds relationships.  ○ Disadvantages: Messages can be forgotten or misunderstood. 2. Written Communication ○ Description: Use of written words (reports, memos, letters). ○ Advantages: Allows for review and archiving. ○ Disadvantages: Lack of immediate feedback can lead to misinterpretation. 3. Electronic Communication ○ Description: Messages transmitted through electronic media (email, video calls, social media). ○ Advantages: Reaches a large audience quickly. ○ Disadvantages: Technical issues and misinterpretation can occur. 4. Nonverbal Communication ○ Description: Transmission of wordless cues (facial expressions, gestures). ○ Advantages: Conveys subtle messages effectively. ○ Disadvantages: Unintentional messages may lead to misunderstandings. Channel Richness Definition: The degree to which a channel allows easy communication and understanding. Importance: Choosing the right channel based on richness can enhance communication effectiveness. Barriers to Communication 1. Filtering ○ Description: Manipulating a message before passing it on. 2. Emotions ○ Impact: Emotions can affect how we communicate and interpret messages. 3. Information Overload ○ Description: Excess information can lead to poor decision-making. ○ Solution: Prioritize information to avoid overload. 4. Differing Perceptions ○ Description: Misunderstandings due to different viewpoints. ○ Solution: Challenge assumptions and seek clarification. Active Listening Components of Active Listening 1. Processing ○ Description: Understanding and remembering the message while empathizing with the speaker. 2. Sensing ○ Description: Paying attention to the speaker's signals without interrupting. 3. Responding ○ Description: Providing feedback and clarifying the message by summarizing key points. Conclusion Effective communication is essential in the workplace. Understanding different communication channels, recognizing barriers, and practicing active listening can significantly improve interactions and overall organizational behavior. Directions of Communication in Organizations Types of Organizational Communication There are three main types of communication within organizations: 1. Downward Communication ○ Definition: Messages sent from upper levels of the hierarchy to lower levels. ○ Functions: Maintains discipline and compliance. Provides clear messages about performance, strategies, and goals. ○ Benefits: Involves employees and reduces insecurity. ○ Risks: Poor transmission can lead to confusion, distrust, and anxiety. 2. Upward Communication ○ Definition: Messages sent from lower levels to higher levels. ○ Importance: Allows feedback and suggestions from employees who understand customer needs.  ○ Risks: Withholding information can leave management unaware of real issues. 3. Lateral Communication ○ Definition: Messages exchanged between similar hierarchical levels across departments. ○ Benefits: Facilitates quick and accurate information sharing. Encourages teamwork and builds morale. ○ Risks: Requires management control to prevent conflicts. Communication Networks Formal Networks: Official messages approved by the hierarchy. Informal Networks: Unofficial sharing of information among employees. Grapevine Communication Definition: Unofficial communication channels that spread information quickly. Characteristics: ○ Can create unity among employees. ○ Often arises when management is not transparent. ○ Information can be inaccurate and based on rumors. Gossip and Cluster Chains Gossip Chains: Spread untrue or inaccurate information through individuals. Cluster Chains: Information is shared within a specific group. Risks: Both can damage the organization regardless of management's response. Cross-Cultural Communication Importance Effective cross-cultural communication is crucial for global organizations. Barriers Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's own culture is superior to others. Contextual Differences 1. Low-Context Cultures ○ Rely on explicit messages (spoken or written). ○ Examples: English-speaking and Germanic countries. ○ Characteristics: Direct, logical, and efficient communication. 2. High-Context Cultures ○ Rely on nonverbal cues and context. ○ Examples: Many Middle Eastern and Asian cultures. ○ Characteristics: Value silence and body language. Social Context Communication varies based on social settings and relationships. Complicating Factors Slang and Idioms: Informal language specific to groups. Euphemisms: Vague terms used to soften blunt messages. Proverbs (속담): Common sayings that convey cultural wisdom. Cross-Cultural Communication Skills Cross-Cultural Communication Complicating Factors Verbal Dueling ○ A competitive form of communication where participants exchange insults until one "wins." Humor ○ Humor is valued in most cultures, but: What is funny in one culture may not be in another. Some jokes may be inappropriate or lost in translation. Overcoming Difficulties 1. Do Your Homework ○ Research and understand the cultural background of your audience.  2. Never Make Assumptions ○ Avoid jumping to conclusions about others' thoughts or feelings based on your own experiences. 3. Be an Active Listener ○ Pay attention to what others are saying and show that you are engaged. 4. Make an Effort to Be Supportive ○ Offer help and encouragement to foster positive communication. 5. Avoid Slang, Jargon, and Euphemisms ○ Use clear and straightforward language to prevent misunderstandings. Trust, Conflict, and Negotiation Dynamics Trust, Conflict, and Negotiation in Organizational Behavior Trust in Organizations Importance of Trust: High trust leads to better teamwork and focus. Psychological Contract: This defines how much employees trust their organization. Types of Trust 1. Ability: Skills to complete tasks. 2. Integrity: Keeping promises and respecting others. 3. Benevolence: Listening and providing support. Social Networks Trust is built through repeated interactions with others. Conflict in Teams and Organizations Definition of Conflict: A clash due to differing opinions or perceptions. Types of Conflict 1. Task Conflict: Disagreements about work direction or goals. 2. Relationship Conflict: Personality clashes among individuals.  3. Process Conflict: Disputes about how to carry out work. Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict Functional Conflict: Healthy disputes that lead to new ideas. Dysfunctional Conflict: Negative disputes that hinder progress. Stages of the Conflict Process 1. Antecedents: Factors that lead to conflict (e.g., poor communication). 2. Perceived/Felt Conflict: Emotional awareness of differences. 3. Manifest Conflict: Active engagement in conflict behaviors. 4. Outcomes of Conflict: Consequences of the dispute. Conflict Management Strategies Five Strategies: 1. Avoidance 2. Accommodation 3. Competition 4. Compromise 5. Collaboration Negotiation and Dispute Resolution Definition of Negotiation: Reaching an agreement acceptable to both parties. Steps in Negotiation 1. Preparation: ○ Outline goals and research the other party. 2. Shaping Expectations: ○ Set ground rules for the negotiation. 3. Providing Supporting Evidence: ○ Present issues with evidence. 4. Negotiating the Deal: ○ Engage in discussions and make decisions. 5. Agreement and Implementation: ○ Clarify and formalize the agreement in writing. Third-Party Dispute Resolution Approaches (제3자 분쟁 해결) Mediator (중재자): Facilitates communication without judgment.  Arbitrator (중재인): Makes binding decisions based on statements. Conciliator (조정자): Encourages communication and offers nonbinding opinions. Bargaining Approaches (협상 접근법) Distributive Bargaining: Competing for a fixed amount of resources. Integrative Bargaining: Collaborating for a win-win solution. Zone of Possible Agreement The range within which an agreement is possible for both parties. Chapter 9: Leadership Theories and Perspectives Chapter 13: Leadership Perspectives What Is Leadership? Leadership is the process of guiding individuals or groups towards achieving goals. It involves providing direction from a position of influence. Formal and Informal Leadership 1. Formal Leaders ○ Officially designated by the organization (e.g., CEO appointed by the board). 2. Informal Leaders ○ Not officially recognized but perceived as leaders by others. Key Differences Leadership: Focuses on creating vision, introducing change, and influencing others. Management: Maintains stability and ensures smooth operations. Not all managers are leaders. Basic Leadership Types Directive Leaders: ○ Implement guidelines and set performance standards. Transactional Leaders: ○ Set goals and motivate followers with rewards. Visionary Leaders:  ○ Create a motivating vision and expect commitment. Empowering Leaders: ○ Develop followers' skills and encourage ownership of work. Early Leadership Perspectives 1. Trait Leadership Perspective ○ Focuses on personal qualities that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. ○ Assumes effective leaders are born, not made. ○ Criticized for its limited methodology. 2. Behavioral Leadership Perspective ○ Examines how leaders behave and interact with followers. ○ Key studies include: 1. Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure: Leaders define roles and set guidelines. Consideration: Leaders build trust and respect. 2. University of Michigan Studies: Job-Centered Leadership: Focus on tasks. Employee-Centered Leadership: Focus on personal needs. 3. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory ○ Examines the relationship between leader style and organizational effectiveness. ○ Two leader types: 1. High LPC (Relationship-oriented) 2. Low LPC (Task-oriented) ○ Three contingencies (상황 요인): 1. Leader-member relations 2. Task structure 3. Position power of the leader 4. Life-Cycle Theory: Hersey and Blanchard ○ Proposes that a leader's effectiveness depends on followers' maturity and experience. ○ Two dimensions: 1. Task orientation 2. Relationship orientation ○ Four decision-making styles: 1. Telling (S1): Directive approach with clear instructions. 2. Selling (S2): Supportive approach to gain commitment. 3. Participating (S3): Collaborative approach with shared decision-making. 4. Delegating (S4): Hands-off approach, allowing followers to take charge. Summary Understanding leadership involves recognizing the differences between formal and informal leaders, the various leadership styles, and the historical perspectives on leadership. Each perspective offers insights into how leaders can effectively guide their teams towards achieving organizational goals. Leadership Theories Life-Cycle Theory: Hersey and Blanchard Participating (S3): ○ Leaders and followers collaborate in decision-making. ○ Best in low initiating structure and high consideration situations. Delegating (S4): ○ Leaders assign most responsibilities to followers while monitoring progress. ○ Suitable for low initiating structure and low consideration. Path-Goal Theory of Leadership Purpose: Leaders motivate followers by clarifying goals and identifying paths to achieve them. Behavioral Styles: 1. Directive: Implements guidelines and manages expectations. Suitable for environments like the military. 2. Supportive: Shows friendliness and concern for followers' welfare. Example: A leader helps struggling followers until they feel empowered. 3. Participative: Consults with followers and considers their input in decisions. Example: A marketing leader gathers input on product launches. 4. Achievement-oriented: Sets challenging goals and assists in training. Example: Football quarterbacks directing team plays. Substitutes for Leadership Models Certain characteristics can substitute or neutralize the need for leadership. ○ Example: A well-run, experienced team may not need a task-oriented leader. Contemporary Leadership Perspectives Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: ○ Each leader has a unique relationship with each team member. ○ Relationships can be: In-group exchange: High-quality relationships with loyal and skilled members. Out-group exchange: Low-quality relationships with perceived incompetent members. Transformational Leadership: ○ Focuses on: Idealized influence Inspirational motivation Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration Charismatic Leadership: ○ Uses inspiration to motivate followers but may focus on personal needs. Follower-Centered Leadership Perspective: ○ Followership: The ability of individuals to cooperate with leaders. ○ Implicit Leadership Theories: Traits associated with leadership (e.g., charismatic, intelligent). ○ Implicit Followership Theories: Traits expected from good followers (e.g., enthusiasm, industriousness). Leadership Theories and Practices Leadership Theories and Perspectives Followership Theories Ineffective Followers: ○ Seen as easily influenced, arrogant, uneducated, slow, inexperienced, and rude. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: ○ Leaders develop different relationships with different followers. ○ First impressions can create biases and negativity within groups. Power-Distributing Leadership Perspectives 1. Empowering Leadership: ○ Delegates power to motivate employees.  ○ Practices include: Leading by example Coaching Participative decision-making Informing Showing concern 2. Self-Leadership: ○ Intentionally influencing one's own thinking and behavior. ○ Three main strategies: Behavior-focused strategies Natural reward strategies Constructive thought pattern strategies Values-Based Leadership Perspectives 1. Authentic Leadership: ○ Based on honesty, practicality, and ethicality. ○ Focuses on empowerment and trust. 2. Spiritual Leadership: ○ Motivates through faith, hope, and vision. ○ Encourages positive emotions like forgiveness and gratitude. ○ Not necessarily religious, but based on shared values. 3. Servant Leadership: ○ Emphasizes employees and community over the leader. ○ Known as "leading from behind." ○ Servant leaders are empathic and perceptive. 4. Ethical Leadership: ○ Influences through personal values, morals, and beliefs. ○ Stresses honesty, accountability, and fairness. Cross-Cultural Leadership Definition: Leading across different cultures. Dimensions: 1. Charismatic/Value-Based: Inspires and motivates high performance. 2. Team-Oriented: Focuses on effective team building and common goals. 3. Participative: Engages others in decision-making. 4. Humane Oriented: Supportive and compassionate leadership. 5. Autonomous: Independent leadership, can hinder outstanding leadership. 6. Self-Protective: Focuses on leader's self-interests, often inhibits leadership. Leadership and Gender  Causes of Inequality: ○ Leadership style and expectations ○ Family and career demands ○ Professional networks ○ Discrimination and stereotypes (e.g., glass ceiling, glass cliff) Ways to Challenge Patterns of Inequality: ○ Eliminate prejudice ○ Adjust evaluation processes ○ Adopt open-recruitment methods ○ Redress the balance ○ Encourage networking ○ Provide management opportunities ○ Establish family-friendly practices ○ Encourage men to use family-friendly benefits ○ Allow time to achieve ○ Have women mentor men ○ Keep the door open Chapter 10: Analyzing Public Organizations' Environments Government and Political Authority Levels of Government Higher and Lower Levels: Government operates at various levels, including federal, state, and local. Intergovernmental Agreements: These are agreements between different levels of government to coordinate actions and policies. Bureaucracy and Interdependencies Complex Relationships: Bureaucracies interact with each other and different government levels, requiring cooperation. Grants and Coordination: Federal grants often necessitate collaboration between agencies. Fragmented Authority: The federal system can lead to competition among agencies for resources and control. Interest Groups and Political Influence Types of Interest Groups:  ○ Client Groups: Groups that benefit from agency services. ○ Constituency Groups: Groups that represent the interests of a specific population. ○ Professional Associations: Groups that represent professionals in specific fields. Role of Interest Groups: ○ Support is crucial for agency legitimacy and defense against budget cuts. ○ They provide valuable information and expert reports. ○ Can lead to competition among interests, fostering diverse viewpoints. Media Influence Social Media Impact: Platforms like Facebook and Twitter have transformed political communication. Media Scrutiny: Close media attention is essential for governance but often highlights negative aspects, affecting public perception. Public Managers and Media: Agencies spend significant time managing media relations to maintain a positive image. Public Opinion Public Support: Agencies rely on public opinion for political backing and resource acquisition. Ambivalence: The public may express negative views about government overall while praising specific agencies. Agency Classification: Agencies are perceived differently based on their clientele and importance to the public. Political Environment Perceptions Influential Actors: State agency managers often view legislatures as the most influential, while local managers see mayors as key players. Interest Groups: While seen as less influential than legislatures, they are valued for their contributions to decision-making. Policy Actors Iron Triangle: A stable relationship among bureaucracy, congressional committees, and interest groups. Issue Network: A more fluid network involving various stakeholders attempting to influence public policy. Networks in Public Management Definition of Networks: Structures of interdependence among multiple organizations that require collaboration rather than strict hierarchy. Effectiveness of Networks: Success is measured by the ability to achieve outcomes that individual organizations cannot accomplish alone. Collaboration in Public Management Collaboration Process: Involves negotiation and the creation of shared norms among autonomous actors. Five Principles of Collaboration: 1. Agreeing to work together. 2. Planning collaboratively. 3. Assessing progress. 4. Improving performance. 5. Allocating resources effectively. Recent Directions in Motivation Theory Disorderly State: No single theory explains motivation conclusively; various theories may apply to different contexts. Calls for Development: There is a need for "middle range" theories and taxonomies to better understand motivation in public management. Analyzing the Environment of Public Organizations General Dimensions of Organizational Environments Technological Conditions: Knowledge and capabilities in various fields (science, engineering, etc.). Legal Conditions: Laws, regulations, and legal processes affecting organizations. Political Conditions: Characteristics of political systems (e.g., socialism, capitalism) and stability. Economic Conditions: Factors like prosperity, inflation, and labor market characteristics. Demographic Conditions: Population characteristics (age, gender, race, etc.). Ecological Conditions: Physical environment aspects (climate, pollution, resources).  Cultural Conditions: Values, beliefs, and social customs influencing behavior. General Environmental Conditions Turbulence and Interconnectedness: Public organizations face rapid changes and interconnected issues. Stability and Change: Environmental stability affects organizational morale and operations. ○ Examples: Rapid turnover of political appointees. Shifts in political priorities. Descriptive and Analytic Dimensions of Organizational Environments 1. Capacity: Availability of necessary resources. 2. Homogeneity vs. Heterogeneity: Similarity or dissimilarity of environmental components. 3. Stability vs. Instability: Rate of change in the environment. 4. Concentration vs. Dispersion: Proximity of important components. 5. Domain Consensus vs. Dissensus: Agreement on the organization’s operational domain. 6. Turbulence: Changes in one area affecting others. The Impact of Political Power and Public Policy General Values and Institutions: Political and economic traditions, constitutional provisions. Performance Criteria: Competence, efficiency, effectiveness, accountability, and fairness. Sources of Political Authority and Influence Chief Executives: ○ Appoint agency heads. ○ Propose budgets and policies. Legislative Bodies: ○ Approve budgets and appointments. ○ Conduct oversight and initiate legislation. Courts: ○ Review agency decisions and enforce due process.  Other Influences: ○ Interest groups, media, public opinion, and individual citizens. Chief Executives Influence Methods: ○ Appointments and budget authority. ○ Policy initiatives and executive orders. Dynamic Influence: Their power is complex and can change based on context. Legislative Bodies Formal Authority: ○ Power of the purse, oversight, and enabling statutes. Informal Influence: ○ Pressuring administrators for information or actions. Limits on Power: ○ Agencies often have expertise and implementation power. Courts Authority: ○ Can confine agencies to statutory authority and enforce due process. Influence: ○ Can have significant control over agency operations under certain conditions. These notes summarize the key concepts related to the environment of public organizations, focusing on the various dimensions and influences that shape their operations. Understanding these elements is crucial for analyzing how public organizations function within their environments. Motivation in Public Organizations Understanding Motivation in Public Organizations Theories of Motivation  Content Theories: Highlight the importance of intrinsic incentives and equity. Expectancy Theory & Operant Conditioning: Focus on what is rewarded and punished in work settings. Incentive Structures and Reward Expectancies Linking rewards to performance is challenging in the public sector due to: ○ Highly structured personnel procedures (e.g., civil service). ○ Variability among government agencies. Some pay-for-performance plans succeed, while others do not. Conflicting findings on whether government employees see a link between extrinsic rewards and performance. Motivation Levels in Public Sector Employees Debate exists on whether public sector incentive structures reduce motivation. Research shows no significant differences in self-reported motivation between public and private sectors. Surveys indicate high motivation levels among public employees despite constraints. Special Considerations for Public Organizations Decision-Making Influences: More groups and individuals influence decisions, leading to power-sharing situations. Diversity: Greater diversity in backgrounds, cultures, and interests. Regulatory Pressures: Rules and accountability pressures complicate decision-making. Goal Definition: Goals are often harder to define and measure. Service-Oriented Tasks: Tasks are typically service-oriented and information-intensive. Complexity in Public Sector Management Research often generalizes and overlooks public sector complexities. Public organizations face unique challenges in group relations, communication, and conflict resolution. The nature of government complicates policymaking and political choices. Leadership and Management in Public Organizations Evidence suggests distinct differences between public and private sector management contexts.  Mintzberg's Findings: Public managers engage more with external interest groups and governing boards. Kaufman's Observations: Federal bureau chiefs operate under institutional constraints. Chase and Reveal's Emphasis: Managing public agencies involves navigating external political environments. Context and Performance Unique public sector challenges may impact performance. Challenges can reduce time spent on organizational issues (Warwick, 1975). Performance deficits linked to rules and controls (Lynn, 1980; Allison, 1983). Adverse effects on motivation noted by the National Academy of Public Administration (1986) and Volker Commission (1989). Survey of Leadership Practices Mixed evidence on the quality of leadership from government employee surveys. Some studies show favorable impressions of supervisors, while others indicate lower ratings compared to the private sector. Differences in expectations may question the validity of comparisons between sectors. Contingencies and Variations Variations in context and individual officials lead to differing views on public managerial roles. Managers must balance tasks with policymaking and navigate political environments. Effective Leadership in Government Generalizations about government executives are often inaccurate. Public executives, like private managers, vary widely in skills, motivations, and orientations.