OB-unit 6.pptx

International University of Management. OB10D2/GAM0D2: Unit 6: Motivational Concepts Describe the three key elements of motivation Definition: Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The three...

International University of Management. OB10D2/GAM0D2: Unit 6: Motivational Concepts Describe the three key elements of motivation Definition: Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The three key elements of our definition of motivation are intensity, direction, and persistence. Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries to do anything. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. Direction is the orientation that benefits the organization. It can be positive or negative. Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the most well known theory of motivation. He hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. These begin with Physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. The second level is Safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm. The next level is Social needs and it includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Reaching a higher level we find Esteem needs that includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. At the top of the hierarchy is Self- actualization needs. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self- fulfillment. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont..  Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers.  Research does not generally validate the theory.  Some researchers have attempted to revive components of the need hierarchy concept, using principles from evolutionary psychology. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward employees according to these Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… Theory X assumptions are basically negative. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. Most workers place security above all other factors and will display little ambition. Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. People will exercise self- direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. What are the implications for managers? This is best explained by using Maslow’s framework Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… The Two-Factor Theory is sometimes also called motivation- hygiene theory. Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he investigated the question, “What do people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated and categorized. From the categorized responses, Herzberg concluded that Intrinsic factors, such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement seem to be related to job satisfaction. Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working conditions. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Job satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not necessarily bring about motivation. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied. Neither will they be satisfied. To motivate people, managers must emphasize factors intrinsically rewarding that are associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it. Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory: The procedure is limited by its methodology. The reliability of methodology is questioned. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… The next traditional theory is McClelland’s Theory of Needs. This theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. The first of this theory’s variables is achievement need, which is abbreviated nAch, and is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 50-50. They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little. Need for achievement predicted Relationships With a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… A high need to achieve does not necessarily make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations. Needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. Need for power Is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for power is abbreviated nPow and is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others. Individuals high in nPow enjoy being “in charge.” They strive for influence over others. They prefer to be placed into competitive and status-oriented situations. And they tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance. Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today cont… Among the early theories of motivation McClelland’s has had the best research support. Unfortunately, it has less practical effect than the others. McClelland argued that the three needs are subconscious. We may rank high on them but not know it. Because of this measuring them is not easy. In the most common approach, a trained expert presents pictures to individuals, asks them to tell a story about each, and then scores their responses in terms of the three needs. However, the process is time consuming and expensive, and few organizations have been Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards Self Determination Theory, one of the first contemporary theories, proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation. Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on cognitive evaluation theory, which hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task. When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do. Self-determination theory also proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others. A large number of studies support self-determination theory. Its major implications relate to work rewards. Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards cont….  Extrinsic rewards used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job.  Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual’s perception of why she works on a task from an external to an internal explanation.  Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. The Implications for extrinsic and intrinsic rewards can be summed up. First, for individuals, it means to choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. They need to make the work interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth and development. Employees who feel what they do is within their control and a result of free choice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers. Understand the implications of employee engagement for management Job engagement, the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. One key to increasing job engagement is the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work. Another factor is a match between the individual’s values and the organization’s. Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission. Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives In the late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does non feedback. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than do the generalized goals. If factors like ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant, we can also state that the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance. Why are people motivated by difficult goals? Challenging goals get our attention and thus tend to help us focus. Difficult goals energize us because we have to work harder to attain them. When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives cont… Difficult goals lead us to discover strategies that help us perform the job or task more effectively. People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. Self- generated feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally generated feedback. The evidence is mixed regarding the superiority of participative over assigned goals. If employees have the opportunity to participate in the setting of their own goals, will they try harder? A major advantage of participation may be in increasing acceptance. If people participate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept even a difficult goal than if they are arbitrarily assigned it by their boss. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback. If participation isn’t used, then the individual assigning the goal needs to clearly explain its purpose and importance. Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives cont… There are contingencies in goal-setting theory. In addition to feedback, three other factors influence the goals-performance relationship, goal commitment, task characteristics, and national culture. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal. He or she believes they can achieve the goal and They want to achieve it. Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, and independent rather than interdependent. On interdependent tasks, group goals are preferable. National culture. Goal-setting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North American cultures, where individual achievement and performance are most highly valued. To date, research has not shown that group-based goals are more effective in collectivists Self-Efficacy Theory Self-Efficacy Theory is a new theory gaining much attention. Albert Bandura, developer of self-efficacy theory defined four characteristics. First is enactive mastery that is gaining relevant experience with the task or job. Second is Vicarious modeling, or becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. Third is Verbal persuasion when a person is more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills. And lastly is Arousal that leads to an energized state driving a person to complete the task. This theory is also known also as social cognitive theory and social learning theory Implications of Efficacy Theory Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. Intelligence and personality are absent from Bandura’s list, but they can increase self-efficacy. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal- setting theory Goal-Setting vs. Reinforcement Theory Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his action. Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically. Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes some action. Operant conditioning theory argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal- setting theory In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior. Some researchers look at the same experiments reinforcement theorists use to support their position and interpret the findings in a framework. Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue it is the only one. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory What role does equity play in motivation? An employee with several years experience can be frustrated to find out that a recent college grad hired at a salary level higher than he or she is currently earning, causing motivation levels to drop. Why? Employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension. Additionally, the referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory. There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory First is Self-inside, which is based on an employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization. Second is Self-outside, which is based on an employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization. Third is Other-inside where another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization Is the basis of comparison. Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization work and the amount of effort you allocate to each task are affected by the consequences that follow. If you’re consistently reprimanded for out producing your colleagues, you’ll likely reduce your productivity. But we might also explain your lower productivity in terms of Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory cont… There are four moderating variables. They are gender, length of tenure, level in the organization, and amount of education or professionalism. Let’s consider each. First is gender. Men and women prefer same-sex comparisons. This also suggests that if women are tolerant of lower pay, it may be due to the comparative standard they use. Employees in jobs that are not sex-segregated will make more cross-sex comparisons than those in jobs that are either male- or female- dominated. Second is length of tenure. Employees with short tenure in their current organizations tend to have little information about others. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison. Third is level in the organization Upper-level employees tend to be more cosmopolitan and have better information about people in other organizations. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory cont… Therefore, these types of employees will make more other-outside comparisons. The amount of education or professionalism can contribute here. Employees with higher education are more likely to include others outside the organization as referent points Last is Professional ranks and higher Education. Upper-level employees, those in the professional ranks, and those with higher amounts of education tend to have better information about people in other organizations and will make more other–outside comparisons. When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices. They can change their inputs. They can change their outcomes. They can distort perceptions of self. They can distort perceptions Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees Expectancy Theory argues that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he/she believes that: Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal. A good appraisal will lead to rewards. The rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals Three key relationships in Expectancy Theory include the Effort- performance relationship, which is the the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. Second, Performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. And third, Rewards- personal goals relationship is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees The key to expectancy theory is the understanding of an individual’s goals and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction. Some critics suggest that the theory has only limited use, arguing that it tends to be more valid for predicting in situations where effort-performance and performance- reward linkages are clearly perceived by the individual. Compare contemporary theories of motivation Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he/she perceives that there is a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. Each of these relationships, in turn, is influenced by certain factors. For effort to lead to good performance, the individual must have the requisite ability to perform, and the performance appraisal system must be perceived as being fair and objective. The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards-goals relationship. The model considers the achievement, need, reinforcement, and equity/organizational justice theories. High achievers are internally driven as long as the jobs they are doing provide them with personal