Introduction To Psychology Finals Reviewer PDF

FINALS REVIEWER FOR ITP **INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY** **\ ** **LESSON 8: COGNITION** **Cognition-** A mental process that involves, thinking , judgement, problem-solving, and memory. **Intelligence**- The mental capacity of an individual ,to acquire knowledge,reason , and to solve problem. *...

FINALS REVIEWER FOR ITP **INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY** **\ ** **LESSON 8: COGNITION** **Cognition-** A mental process that involves, thinking , judgement, problem-solving, and memory. **Intelligence**- The mental capacity of an individual ,to acquire knowledge,reason , and to solve problem. **Concept-**A mental representation of a category of information, objects, ideas, or life experiences. It\'s an abstract idea or general notion. **Ex:** A "**bird**". Any species that has an ability to fly ,has feathers, wings and beaks. **Prototype-** best representation of a concept , or most easily recognizable member of a category. **Ex**: an "**eagle**". Is the best representation of a bird for some people, as its appearances are closely align with our common mental representation of a bird. **Schema-**It\'s a cognitive structure that organized and represents our knowledge about a particular concept or situation. -Collection of concepts **Types of intelligence** - **Concrete intelligence/ Mechanical** - Applicable for using machines, tools and instruments - **Social or emotional intelligence** **-**Ability to understand social situations and act wisely in human relationship. - **Abstract or general intelligence** - Ability to understand word, number and letters. **Emotional Intelligence** ( EQ) -The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. **\`** **Intelligence Quotient** (IQ) -The ratio between mental age and chronological age **CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL ACCORDING TO IQ** **Multiple Intelligence** **-**A theory proposed by Howard Gardner, in which he stated that intelligence is not a single,fixed ability ,but more likely a collection of distinct intelligences. **Gardner's Multiple Intelligence** - Linguistic Intelligence - Logical-Mathematical Intelligence - Spatial Intelligence - Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence - Musical Intelligence - Interpersonal Intelligence - Intrapersonal Intelligence - Naturalistic Intelligence **Factors Affecting Intelligence** Heredity and Environment Age Health and Physical Environment Culture Social and Economic Conditions **THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE** - **Uni or one factor theory(**Alfred Binet**)** **-**Intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance on all cognitively oriented task. - Intellectual abilities were comprised of two factor: 1. **General ability** \- It is a universal inborn ability **Ex:** Problem-solving, Reason 2. **Specific abilities** **-** It is acquired from the environment **Ex**: Musical ability, Artistic ability. - **Mutiple theory of intelligence**( LL (Louis Leon)Thurstone) **-** Rejected General Intelligence,and focused on seven primary mental abilities - **Sternberg's view of Intelligence** (Robert Sternberg) **-** he states three components of successful intelligence analytical, creative and practical intelligence **Triarchic Theory of Intelligence** **Metacognition** - thoughts that a person has about their own thoughts. (A person's understanding of their own capabilities on a specific mental tasks) **Déjà Vu**-feeling of a repeated experience **Cryptomnesia**- generating thought believing it is unique but it is actually a memory of a past experience; also known as unconscious plagiarism. **False Fame Effect**- non-famous names can be made to be famous **Validity effect**- statements seem more valid upon repeated exposure **Imagination inflation**- imagining an event that did not occur and having increased confidence that it did occur **LESSON 9: DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN** **-**Developmental psychology focuses on how people change. ** ** Cognitive development Physical development Psychosocial development Normative approach **Issues in Developmental Psychology:** - **Continuous Development** **-** visualized as a smooth slope of progression - **Discontinuous Development** **-** Views development as occurring in distinct stages, with qualitatively different behaviors appearing at each stage. **Freudian Psychosexual Development** **-** Freud believes that childhood experiences are also some factors why an individual act the way they do. - Oral - Anal - Phallic - Latency - Genital +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Stage** | **Developmental Task** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Infancy** (0-1year) | Trust vs. mistrust | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Early Childhood**(1-3 years) | Autonomy vs. | | | | | | shame/doubt | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Play age** (3-6) | Initiative vs. guilt | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **School age** (7-11 years) | Industry vs. inferiority | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Adolescence**(12-18 years) | Identity vs. confusion | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Early Adulthood**(19-29years) | Intimacy vs. isolation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Middle age**( 30-64 years) | Generativity vs. | | | | | | stagnation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Old age** (65-Death) | Integrity vs. despair | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Erikson's Psychosocial** **Developmental Theory** **-** social experience can greatly influence one's personality. **Attachment Styles** - Secure Attachment - Resistant Attachment - Avoidant Attachment - Disorganized Attachment **Parenting Styles** - Authoritative - Authoritarian - Permissive - Uninvolved **LESSON 10:MOTIVATION AND EMOTION** **Motivation** -The wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal **Types of Motivation**: **Intrinsic**( from within)- arising from internal factors-performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring. **Extrinsic** (from outside)- arising from external factors-are performed in order to received something from others **Eating Disorders** **-** A person with an eating disorder will be obsessed by food and have constant thoughts about food, eating, body shape and weight**.** - **Anorexia nervosa** **-** an individual maintenance of a body weight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise - **Bulimia Nervosa** **-** a person develops a cycle of "Binging" or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain - **Binge eating disorder** **-** is a serious eating disorder in which you frequently consume unusually large amounts of food and feel unable to stop eating **Emotion** \- is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. **Theories of Emotions** - **James-Lange Theory** **-**Emotion is caused by physiological response to a stimulus - **Cannon-Bard Theory** **-** Emotions and physiological changes occur simultaneously and independently**.**  - **Schachter-Singer Theory** **-**After responding to a stressor, you appraise the threat at the same time as changes happen in your body(sweat, hearbeat), which leads your to feel the emotion - **Lazaru's Cognitive** **Mediation Theory** **-**After being exposed to a stressor, you appraise the threat, then u feel the emotion, then u have a body response**.**  **LESSON 11: SEXUALITY AND GENDER** **Basic dimensions of sex** - **Sex** **-**One's biological classification as female or male - **Gender** **-**Psychological and social characteristics associated with being male or female **Transsexuals** **-**conflict between his or her biological sex and preferred psychological and social gender roles **Sexual Behavior** - **Erogenous zones** **-**Areas of the body that produce pleasure and/or provoke erotic desire**.** - **Sexual script** **-**An unspoken mental plan that defines a "plot," expected to take place in a sexual encounter - **Sexual drive** **-**one's motivation to engage in sexual behavior - **Castration** **-**Surgical removal of the testicles or ovaries**.** - **Sterilization** **-**Medical procedures such as vasectomy or tubal ligation that make a man or a woman infertile - **Masturbation** **-**Self-stimulation that causes sexual pleasure or orgasm. **Paraphilias ( sexual deviations)** **-**intense and persistent sexual interests other than genital stimulation or preparatory fondling with phenotypically normal, physically mature, consenting human partners - **Pedophilia** **-**sex with children, or child molesting - **Exhibitionism** -"flashing," or displaying the genitals to unwilling viewers - **Voyeurism** \- "peeping," or viewing the genitals of others without their permission - **Frotteurism** **-**sexually touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person, usually in a public place such a subway - **Fetishism** **-**sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects - **Sexual masochism** **-**desiring pain and/or humiliation as part of the sex act - **Sexual sadism** **-**deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain and/or humiliation. - **Transvectic fetishism** **-**having a sexual arousal by wearing clothing of on opposite sex. **Sexual Dysfunctions** - **Desire Disorders** **-**The person has little or no sexual motivation or desire - **Arousal Disorders** **-**The person desires sexual activity but does not become sexually aroused - **Orgasm Disorders** **-**The person does not have orgasms or experiences orgasm too soon or too late - **Sexual Pain Disorders** **-**The person experiences pain that makes lovemaking uncomfortable or impossible **LESSON 12: STRESS AND HEALTH** **Effects of Chronic Stress** - Increases in cortisol can significantly weaken our immune system and are associated with depression - Stress contributes to the development of psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. - Stress may lead to heart disease, musculoskeletal, nervous system, and endocrine and metabolic disorders, and death **Stress and immune system** - **Immune system** **-**the body's surveillance system-keep us healthy and desease free by eliminating bacteria viruses. - **Psychoneuroimmunology** **-**field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system. - **Lymphocytes** **-**white blood cells that are important in the immune response **Regulating Stress:** Coping Strategies and Perceived Control - **Coping**-refers to mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to stress - **Problem-focused coping** one attempt to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress. - **Emotion-focused coping** consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress - **Perceived control** is our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes **Positive psychology** **-**seeks to identify and promote the qualities that lead to happy, fulfilled, and contented lives **Positive affect** **-** pleasurable engagement with the environment. ex. happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness and excitement ** Optimism** **-**general tendency to look on the bright side of things ** Flow** **-** a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake(people who loves their jobs) **LESSON 13: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** -examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation. **Social facilitation** **-** occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone. **Social loafing -**is the exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group **Bystander effect:** situation in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress\ **LESSON 14: THEORIES OF PERSONALITIES** **Defense Mechanisms** - **Repression** **-**pressing our negative thoughts and emotion below our consciousness(forget) - **Regression** **-**Reverting back to child-like behavior - **Reaction Formation** **-**Acting the opposite the way you feel (creating your own façade) - **Projection** **-**Blaming someone by attributing your flaws to others - **Rationalization** **-**offers selfjustifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions - **Displacement** **-**Passing negative emotion from one person to another - **Intellectualtization** **-** repression of the emotion connected with distressing event yet is dealt with as an interesting event - **Sublimation** **-**Converting negative emotion into a more accepted form. - **Denial** **-**Refusing to accept that something had occurred. **The Neo-Freudians** - **Carl Jung** **-**believed in the collective unconscious,which contained a shared common reservoir of experiences (memories & ideas) derived from our ancestors' past. - **Alfred Adler** **-**believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual - **Karen Horney** **-**believed in the social aspects of childhood growth and development **Projective test** **-**Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind's perspective would require a psychological instrument that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind. **Thematic Apperception Test** **-**is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes **Rorschach (Inkblot) Test** **-**It uses a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots **The Humanistic Perspective** ( Abraham Maslow , Carl Rogers) **-**Psychologists wanted to focus on "healthy" people and how to help them strive to "be all that they can be." Freud studied the ill, while humanists studied the well **LESSON 15: MENTAL DISORDERS** -The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction **Perspectives on Psychological Disorders** - **Biological perspective** **-**psychological disorders as linked to genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities - **Psychosocial perspective** **-**emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors **Anxiety Disorders** **-**characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior. **Phobia** **-**is excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation **Panic Attack** **-**a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minute. **Panic Disorder** **-** recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with persistent concern about panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks **Generalized anxiety disorder** **-**characterized by a continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless **Body dysmorphic disorder** **-**Obssesive thoughts of having a perfect body. **Hoarding Disorder** **-**persistent difficulty in parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value or usefulness **Major Depressive Disorder** **-**characterized by sadness or loss of pleasure in usual activities. **Bipolar Disorder** **-**is a mood disorder characterized by mood states that vacillate between depression and mania. A manic episode is characterized by extremely cheerful and euphoric mood, excessive talkativeness, irritability and increased activity levels **Subtypes of Depression** - **Seasonal pattern** **-**applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year - **Peripartum onset** **-**applies to women who experience major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth of their child - **Persistent depressive disorder** **-**chronically sad and melancholy, but do not meet all the criteria for major depression