NMC 1: Anatomy & Physiology (Module 1) PDF

Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing...

Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY Module 1 The Human Organism INTRODUCTION: An understanding of anatomy and physiology is not only fundamental to any career in the health professions, but it can also benefit your own health. Familiarity with the human body can help you make healthful choices and prompt you to take appropriate action when signs of illness arise. Your knowledge in this field will help you understand news about nutrition, medications, medical devices, and procedures and help you understand genetic or infectious diseases. At some point, everyone will have a problem with some aspect of his or her body and your knowledge can help you to be a better parent, spouse, partner, friend, colleague, or caregiver. This module begins with an overview of anatomy and physiology and a preview of the body regions and functions. It then covers the characteristics of life and how the body works to maintain stable conditions. It introduces a set of standard terms for body structures and for planes and positions in the body that will serve as a foundation for more comprehensive information covered later in the text. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: ▪ Video Lesson: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBGl2BujkPQ PRESENTATION/DISCUSSION: LESSON 1 – Definition of Anatomy and Physiology Learning Objectives: By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology, including their specializations and methods of study 2. Discuss the fundamental relationship between anatomy and physiology What is Anatomy? Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 1  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut apart.” Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment their knowledge. When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their physical attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in medical schools, anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe structures in living people, however, a number of imaging techniques have been developed. These techniques allow clinicians to visualize structures inside the living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone. Areas of specialization in Anatomy: 1. Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification. Macro- means “large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic anatomy. 2. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices. Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues. Two General Approaches: 1. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a particular body region. 2. Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body. 3. Surface anatomy is the study of the external features of the body of an animal. It deals with anatomical features that can be studied by sight, without dissection. What is Physiology? Whereas anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function. Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life. Much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency toward homeostasis. Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch of physiology. For example, neurophysiology is the study of the brain, spinal NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 2  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing cord, and nerves and how this work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking. Physiologists may work from the organ level (exploring, for example, what different parts of the brain do) to the molecular level (such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travel along nerves). Your study of anatomy and physiology will make more sense if you continually relate the form of the structures you are studying to their function. In fact, it can be somewhat frustrating to attempt to study anatomy without an understanding of the physiology that a body structure supports. Imagine, for example, trying to appreciate the unique arrangement of the bones of the human hand if you had no conception of the function of the hand. Fortunately, your understanding of how the human hand manipulates tools—from pens to cell phones—helps you appreciate the unique alignment of the thumb in opposition to the four fingers, making your hand a structure that allows you to pinch and grasp objects and type text messages. LESSON 2 – Structural and Functional Organization Learning Objectives: By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Describe the structure of the human body in terms of six levels of organization 2. List the eleven organ systems of the human body and identify at least one organ and one major function of each Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the human body, it is helpful to consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts are assembled into larger structures. It is convenient to consider the structures of the body in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms and biosphere (Figure 1.3). Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body 1. Chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and neutron. Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 3  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures. 2. Cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure. All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells. 3. Organelles. A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. In humans, as in all organisms, cells perform all functions of life. 4. Tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related types) that work together to perform a specific function. 5. An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions. 6. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. Figure 1.3 Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 4  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing For discussion, the eleven distinct organ systems in the human body will be included. Assigning organs to organ systems can be imprecise since organs that “belong” to one system can also have functions integral to another system. In fact, most organs contribute to more than one system. Figure 1.4 Organ Systems of the Human Body Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 5  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing Figure 1.5 Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued) Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 6  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 7. The organism level is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life. In multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body work together to maintain the life and health of the organism. LESSON 3 – Characteristics of Life Learning Objectives: By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Explain the importance of organization to the function of the human organism 2. Distinguish between metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism 3. Provide at least two examples of human responsiveness and human movement 4. Compare and contrast growth, differentiation, and reproduction The different organ systems each have different functions and therefore unique roles to perform in physiology. These many functions can be summarized in terms of a few that we might consider definitive of human life: organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, development, and reproduction. Characteristics of Life 1. Organization A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal compartments. These compartments keep body cells separated from external environmental threats and keep the cells moist and nourished. They also separate internal body fluids from the countless microorganisms that grow on body surfaces, including the lining of certain passageways that connect to the outer surface of the body. The intestinal tract, for example, is home to more bacterial cells than the total of all human cells in the body, yet these bacteria are outside the body and cannot be allowed to circulate freely inside the body. 2. Metabolism The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form. Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) energy and molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and maintain your body structures. There are two types of reactions that accomplish this: anabolism and catabolism. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 7  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing a. Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it needs by combining small molecules derived from the foods you eat b. Catabolism is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed for life. These two processes are called metabolism. Metabolism is the sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in the body. Both anabolism and catabolism occur simultaneously and continuously to keep you alive. Figure 1.6 Metabolism Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they consume energy. Catabolic reactions break materials down and release energy. Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store and release energy. The cell stores energy in the synthesis (anabolism) of ATP, then moves the ATP molecules to the location where energy is needed to fuel cellular activities. Then the ATP is broken down (catabolism) and a controlled amount of energy is released, which is used by the cell to perform a particular job. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 8  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3. Responsiveness Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environments. An example of responsiveness to external stimuli could include moving toward sources of food and water and away from perceived dangers. Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to decrease body temperature. 4. Movement Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are moving throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your posture and to focus your vision, and glands are secreting chemicals to regulate body functions. Your body is coordinating the action of entire muscle groups to enable you to move air into and out of your lungs, to push blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have eaten through your digestive tract. 5. Development Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life. Development includes the process of differentiation, in which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in the body. Development also includes the processes of growth and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation. 6. Growth Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells (such as mineral deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of existing cells. 7. Reproduction Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from parent organisms. In humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will come to all complex organisms, without reproduction, the line of organisms would end. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 9  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing LESSON 4 – Influences on Human Survival Learning Objectives: By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Discuss the role of oxygen and nutrients in maintaining human survival 2. Explain why extreme heat and extreme cold threaten human survival 3. Explain how the pressure exerted by gases and fluids influences human survival Humans have been acclimating to life on Earth for at least the past 200,000 years. Earth and its atmosphere have provided us with air to breathe, water to drink, and food to eat, but these are not the only requirements for survival. Although you may rarely think about it, you also cannot live outside of a certain range of temperature and pressure that the surface of our planet and its atmosphere provides. The next sections explore these four requirements of life. Requirements of Life 1. Oxygen Atmospheric air is only about 20 percent oxygen, but that oxygen is a key component of the chemical reactions that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce ATP. Brain cells are especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement for a high-and-steady production of ATP. Brain damage is likely within five minutes without oxygen, and death is likely within ten minutes. 2. Nutrients A nutrient is a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival. The three basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy- yielding and body-building nutrients, and the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). 3. Narrow Range of Temperature You have probably seen news stories about athletes who died of heat stroke, or hikers who died of exposure to cold. Such deaths occur because the chemical reactions upon which the body depends can only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just above 37°C (98.6°F). NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 10  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 4. Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure Pressure is a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance. Atmospheric pressure is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the Earth’s atmosphere. Although you may not perceive it, atmospheric pressure is constantly pressing down on your body. This pressure keeps gases within your body, such as the gaseous nitrogen in body fluids, dissolved. ▪ Decompression Sickness is a condition in which gases dissolved in the blood or in other body tissues are no longer dissolved following a reduction in pressure on the body. LESSON 5 - Homeostasis Learning Objectives: By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Discuss the role of homeostasis in healthy functioning 2. Contrast negative and positive feedback, giving one physiologic example of each mechanism Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has a particular set point. A set point is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. Physiological parameters, such as body temperature and blood pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees above and below that point. Control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react to deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback. Negative Feedback Negative feedback is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point. Therefore, negative feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range. The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times. A negative feedback system has three basic components (Figure 1.10). 1. A sensor (receptor), is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value. This value is reported to the control center. 2. The control center is the component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an effector. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 11  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3. An effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range. Figure 1.10 Negative Feedback Loop In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis. (a) A negative feedback loop has four basic parts. (b) Body temperature is regulated by negative feedback. Positive Feedback Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed. (Figure 1.11). Figure 1.11 Positive Feedback Loop Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather than a return to homeostasis. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 12  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing LESSON 6 – Anatomical Terminology Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: 1. Demonstrate the anatomical position 2. Describe the human body using directional and regional terms 3. Identify three planes most commonly used in the study of anatomy 4. Distinguish between the posterior (dorsal) and the anterior (ventral) body cavities, identifying their subdivisions and representative organs found in each 5. Describe serous membrane and explain its function Anatomists and health care providers use terminology that can be bewildering to the uninitiated. However, the purpose of this language is not to confuse, but rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors. By using precise anatomical terminology, we eliminate ambiguity. Anatomical terms derive from ancient Greek and Latin words. Because these languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the meaning of their words does not change. Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-” means “high” or “over,” and the root word “tension” refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure. Anatomical Position To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward as illustrated in Figure 1.12. For example, a body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation.. Regional Terms The human body’s numerous regions have specific terms to help increase precision (see Figure 1.12). Notice that the term “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or “forearm” is used rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct, and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s regions using the terms from the figure. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 13  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing Figure 1.12 Anatomical Position The human body is shown in anatomical position in an (a) anterior view and a (b) posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 14  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing Directional Terms Certain directional anatomical terms appear throughout this and any other anatomy textbook (Figure 1.13). These terms are essential for describing the relative locations of different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might describe a tumor as “superficial to” a deeper body structure. Commit these terms to memory to avoid confusion when you are studying or describing the locations of particular body parts. 1. Anterior (or ventral) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot. 2. Posterior (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella. 3. Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the oris. 4. Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. Figure 1.13 Directional Terms Applied to the Human Body Paired directional terms are shown as applied to the human body. 5. Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits. 6. Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial toe. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 15  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 7. Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium. 8. Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur. 9. Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones. 10. Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull. Body Planes A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical imaging devices enable clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call these scans. Body sections and scans can be correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer understands the plane along which the section was made. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body. There are three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine, as illustrated in Figure 1.14. The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”) The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections. Figure 1.14 Planes of the Body The three planes most commonly used in anatomical and medical imaging are the sagittal, frontal (or coronal), and transverse plane. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 16  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing Body Cavities and Serous Membranes The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments (Figure 1.15). These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs. Figure 1.15 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities. Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity (see Figure 1.15). ▪ The thoracic cavity is enclosed by the rib cage. It contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 17  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing ▪ The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants (Figure 1.16). Figure 1.16 Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b) four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal cavity. Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity (Figure 1.17). NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 18  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing Figure 1.17 Serous Membrane Serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart—much the same way that an underinflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist. Three serous cavities and their associated membranes: 1. The pleura is the serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity; the pleural cavity surrounds the lungs. 2. The pericardium is the serous membrane that encloses the pericardial cavity; the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart. 3. The peritoneum is the serous membrane that encloses the peritoneal cavity; the peritoneal cavity surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The serous membranes form fluid-filled sacs, or cavities, that are meant to cushion and reduce friction on internal organs when they move, such as when the lungs inflate or the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery serous fluid located within the serous cavities. Terminologies 1. abdominopelvic cavity - division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera 2. anatomical position - standard reference position used for describing locations and directions on the human body 3. anterior - describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as ventral 4. anterior cavity - larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as ventral cavity NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 19  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 5. caudal - describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as inferior 6. control center - compares values to their normal range; deviations cause the activation of an effector 7. cranial - describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as superior 8. cranial cavity - division of the posterior (dorsal) cavity that houses the brain 9. deep - describes a position farther from the surface of the body 10. distal - describes a position farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body 11. dorsal - describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as posterior 12. dorsal cavity - posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to the posterior body cavity 13. frontal plane - two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions 14. inferior - describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column); also referred to as caudal 15. lateral - describes the side or direction toward the side of the body 16. medial - describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body 17. normal range - range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center 18. pericardium - sac that encloses the heart 19. peritoneum - serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs found there 20. plane - imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body 21. pleura - serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity and covers the lungs 22. posterior - describes the back or direction toward the back of the body; also referred to as dorsal 23. posterior cavity - posterior body cavity that houses the brain and spinal cord; also referred to as dorsal cavity 24. prone - face down 25. proximal - describes a position nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body 26. sagittal plane - two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides 27. section - in anatomy, a single flat surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut through NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 20  Divine Word College of Bangued Bangued, Abra SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES Bachelor of Science in Nursing 28. serosa - membrane that covers organs and reduces friction; also referred to as serous membrane 29. set point - ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis 30. spinal cavity - division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity 31. superficial - describes a position nearer to the surface of the body 32. superior - describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper; also referred to as cranial 33. supine - face up 34. thoracic cavity - division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, esophagus, and trachea 35. transverse plane - two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions 36. ventral - describes the front or direction toward the front of the body; also referred to as anterior 37. ventral cavity - larger body cavity located anterior to the posterior (dorsal) body cavity; includes the serous membrane-lined pleural cavities for the lungs, pericardial cavity for the heart, and peritoneal cavity for the abdominal and pelvic organs; also referred to as anterior body cavity REFERENCES: A. Online 1. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology 2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBGl2BujkPQ B. Books 1. Taclawan, Eric G. 2006. Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. 2. Tortora, Gerard et. al., Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 15th Edition. Prepared by: CIRILO GEORGE F. CAOAGAS RN, RM, LPT, MAN, MMEnP Instructor NMC 1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY This module is a property and is exclusively used by the DWCB College Department. Any duplication and reproduction, storing in any retrieval system, distribution, posting or uploading online as well as transmitting in any form or means (photocopying& electronic sharing) of any part, without prior written permission from the owner is strictly prohibited. 21