Nigerian Peoples and Global Culture GES 122 PDF

NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND GLOBAL CULTURE GES 122 N  THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE CULTURE: According to E.B Tylor “ Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art ,law, morals , custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a memb...

NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND GLOBAL CULTURE GES 122 N  THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE CULTURE: According to E.B Tylor “ Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art ,law, morals , custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a member of society -it is the way of life of its members, the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from one generation to generation---Ralph Linton -It is the pattern of behaviour and thinking that people living in social group learn create and share. -It distinguishes one group from another, and also humans from animals because humans are able to construct pattern of behaviour for themselves and able to transmit it from generation to generation.  CONCEPT OF CULTURE CONT……..  It is also the characteristic of a particular people defined by everything from language, religion, social habits, music, dance , beliefs ,values and attitudes.  People’s culture includes their belief, rule of behaviour , language, rituals, arts , technology, styles of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, politics and economic systems.  Culture is everything that gives a society its identity.e.g. Yoruba , Igbo, Hausa  CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE  It is learnt: culture is not inherited but learnt, people are not born with culture they learn it through socialization, for instance people learn to speak and understand a language and able to abide by the rules of the society, people learn how to cook, construct shelter and also learn a skill to earn money.  It is transmitted from one generation to another  It is shared by members: Culture is social construct as it involves interacting with people, people living together in a society share culture e.g. people from different culture share their food , dress, style and even celebrate same holidays , festival.  It is idealistic  It is adoptive  It varies from society to society AVID SLIT  It is dynamic  it is independent  TYPES OF CULTURE  Material Culture: man made objects that are visible and concrete e.g. arts , dresses , tools, houses, devices and instruments  It represents the whole apparatus of life or civilization  NON-MATERIAL CULTURE; It includes the concepts, ideas, values, morals , attitude etc.  They are non-concrete, intangible  COMPONENTS OF CULTURE  Ideas : this includes all our values, superstitions, myth, beliefs of a particular society MIST BVN LFC  Norms : According to Donald Light Jr & S. Keller are rules that guide behaviour in everyday situations and are derived from values  are standards of behaviour that are widely accepted or which people are expected by others to follow.  They are based on the way of behaving that are common to all members of the society e.g respecting elders, washing our hands before eating, paying your tax. Norms like ideas differs from one society to another. It is also the formal rules and regulations of a particular society  FOLKWAYS :literally means the way of the people, According to Gillin and Gillin ,it is the behaviour patterns of everyday life, which unconsciously arises within a group  A.W. Green def. it as the ways of acting that are common to a society or a group that are handed down from one generation to the next  Lundberg sees it as the typical or habitual beliefs , attitudes, styles of conduct observed within a group or community  They are customary traits and ways of behaviour of people that are binding.  Conformity to folkways is expected but is not absolute i.e. violation of which do not call for stringent actions e.g. greetings , washing of hand before and after eating if you do not do any of the above no policeman can arrest you  MORES : are social norms that provide the moral standard of the society. Rules of mores are taken seriously and anyone who violates them are severely punished.  According to Edward Sapir, mores connotes fairly strong feeling of the rightness or wrongness of mode of behaviour, it also determines what is moral or immoral, they spell out to the members of a society what they must or not do.e.g. you must not kill, steal, assault  Mores can be positive or negative; the positive provides instruction and guidance for the people to behave in a particular way e.g. giving respect to elder while the negative one prescribes which they should not exhibit through behaviour  Beliefs : it is a conviction, that a particular thing is true. It influences human actions and vital for human relation E.g..the belief in the existence of unseen power  Belief in reincarnation  Belief in the existence of hell and heaven  Belief in the theory of nemesis(goddess of vengeance).  All these beliefs help in shaping human behaviour in that any wrong doing will be punished appropriately and this has helped in social control  Customs: these are the long established habits use by the people to regulate social life  The uniform socially approved ways of acting which are passed from one generation to next------- Anderson  Practices that have been repeated by a multitude of generations and people tend to follow it because it was followed from the past….Kinsley David  They are accepted by the society because they have been passed from one generation to the other  LAWS: According to Roscue Pound law is an authoritative canon of values laid down by forces of politically organized society  Ian Robertson def. law as rule formally enacted by political authority and is backed by the power of the state  Significance of laws Eliminates the homicidal activities of individuals Helps individual to respect the rights of others Protects the individuals and the society Promotes social welfare  VALUE : it is a belief that something is good and desirable  It defines what is important, worthwhile and worth striving for…Michael H  It is a cultural standard which are desirable for organized social life. It is also provides general guidelines for the behaviour of the people, it is the part of culture that explains the way, social processes that operates in a given society. e.g. individual achievement and materialism is a major value in the western industrial society hence the belief of individuals to desire to be at the top in the class , profession and in their various callings.  Values vary from society to society. E.g. respect for elders, democracy, respect for fundamental human rights, religious, patriotism  Values maintains stability and uniformity in group interaction  SUPERSTITION :A widely held but irrational belief in supernatural influences.  TABOOS: anything – place ,food, activity that is forbidden  A social or religious custom prohibiting or restricting a particular practice or forbidding association with a particular person ,place or thing. e.g. incest  ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE KANURI  The kingdom of kanuri (Kanem-Bornu) was one of the earliest kingdoms in the Nigeria area(10th century). According to tradition, Kanem-Bornu was founded by Saif, it is from the name of this dynasty ancestor that the term Saifawa was used for the members of the kanuri ruling family.  The kanuri kingdom was a centralized state ruled by a king called Mai.  The kanuri kingdom was first to record Islamic presence in Nigeria.  Kanem-Bornu reached the peak of its power under the rulership of Mai Idris Aloma in the 16th century and that kingdom was crumbled by the European imperialism. ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE HAUSA  The Hausa states were founded by the descendants of a legendary leader called Bayajida. According to tradition, Bayajida was a warrior who fled from Baghdad (Iraq) his homeland and travelled to Kanem- Bornu and then to Daura in Hausa land. He killed a snake in Daura which had often deprived the inhabitants of the use of the town well.  The queen of Daura married Bayajida in gratitude for his valiant effort. The union produced a son called Bawo whose 6 sons established the original Hausa state of Daura, Kastina, kano, Rano ,Zazzau and Gobir and the 7th state of Biram was established by another son of Bayajida through an earlier marriage to the daughter of the Mai of Kanem-Bornu. These states were known as the Hausa Bakwai KDK RZGB  Advancing his sexual prowess, Bayajida gave birth to additional 7 children through concubines. The 7 children established the 7 Hausa-Banza state (Bastard) states of Zamfara, Nupe ,and Oyo-Yoruba ZON  The Hausa kingdom is a centralised state. The earliest Hausa ruler was called HABE. However , the 1804 jihad and its attendant Fulani imperialism in Hausa land led to establishment of the Caliphate system government headed by an Emir.  ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE FULANI  The Fulani people are transnational ethnic group spread across the entire West-African Savanna region.  In Nigerian, the Fulani people lives across the Northern region. The original home of the Fulani is Senegal River valley area where they were derived from the hybridization of indigenous Negroid race and Berber immigrants  The 12th century witnessed the earliest exodus of the Fulani from their original home to other parts of West –Africa.  The Fulani can be divided into 2 , the sedentary (town) Fulani who are usually Islamic Scholars and Pastoral nomadic Fulani (Cattle Fulani ).  The word Fulani is a Hausa designation. The people refer to themselves as FULO in the singular and FULBE in plural while the term Fulfulde or fula is used to refer to their language  The Fulani society is based on centralised system of govt centered religious aristocracy.  TRADITIONAL-POLITICAL HIERACHY IN NORTHERN NIGERIA  Traditional leader -- Emir  Council Members - Magajin-Gari, Galadima ,Sardauna, Waziri, Madawaki MMS GW  District Head – Hakimi  Village Head – Ubankasa  Ward Head – Mai –Anguwa  Family Household - Gida is the basic social unit headed by a male  Settlement – Gari  Communities - Garuruwa  City – Birni  Caliphate system - is the structure of govt that reinforces the rural- urban (talakawa-Sarauta) relation of exploitation  MARRIAGE IN HAUSA CULTURE  Marriage is a socio-cultural and religious obligation in Hausa society  There are 2 types of marriage pattern in Hausa society:  1. Auren Budurwa (Virgin-girl marriage)  2. Auren Bazawara (Any marriage after the first marriage)  The Father has the right to choose partner for their daughters without their consent.  Acceptance of the bride price by the brides family is very important.  There is a short courtship  If there are 2 or more suitors, there will be competition that is guided strictly by cultural prescription (usually Islamic)  MARRIAGE TYPES  Traditional/Betrothal Marriage  Modern Marriage (Fathia) Sadaaki-monetary gift for the girl is essential.  HouseHold Pattern :Neo/Viri local and men are permitted to be polygyny  Descent- Patrilineal  Authority- Patriarchy MARRIAGE IN FULANI CULTURE  Marriage is endogamous in nomadic Fulani, it is a marriage btw first cousins. This they belief to enhance group integration. Sadaaki – young cow.(Betrothal marriage). In the past Sharo ( Public flogging ) is necessary ,to ensure that the male suitor is able to endure and take care of his wife  There four types of marriage in Fulani society:  1. Koggai- Pibol-Child marriage or Child bethrotal- an under-aged girl is given out in marriage to an equally young boy. The boy’s father present a bull referred to as Ngari-Koggal.  2. koggai Yilde: this an ideal marriage of 2 consented adults  3. koggai Siiri: this is elopement/Secret/Kidnap Marriage though done with the lady’s consent.  4. Escape Marriage: this is when a woman is tired of her new husband , she may decide to return to her former husband or take a third husband as a way of escape and once the new husband provides a cow for , then the marriage is sealed. PYSE  ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE YORUBA  The history of the Yoruba people is divided into 2 versions namely:  1. Autochthonous version  2. Migratory Version  According to the autochthonous version, the Almighty God decided to send some of His messengers to create the world and they included Obatala and 16 oye. They were given 5 pieces of iron, a lump of earth tied to a white piece of cloth , and a cockerel. Somewhere on their way to the world , the leader, Obatala, got drunk with palm wine. Oduduwa seized the symbol of authority from him and eventually known as Oke Oramfe in ile –Ife.  On arrival at the site , Oduduwa set down the five pieces of iron and placed the lump of earth on them. The cockerel then spread its toes on the earth. As a result, the earth was formed and Oduduwa became the first ruler , it was from this location in ife that he established other Yoruba settlements.(Akinjogbin and Ayandele,1980 ). CONT…..  MIGRATORY VERSION: Traced the origin of group the outside the present Yoruba culture area. According to Johnson (1921), the Yoruba originally came from Mecca in the Middle-East. They said to have sprung from Lamurudu, one of the kings of Mecca whose off-spring as Oduduwa , the ancestor of the ancestor of the Yoruba people. According to this tradition , the crown prince Oduduwa relapsed into idolatry during his father’s reign and as he wielded great power and influence. In desperate attempt to transform the state religion of Islam to paganism, he was vanquished, his father Lamurudu was killed and his son Okanbi died in the saga leaving behind his 7 princes and Princesses. Thus Oduduwa was expelled from Mecca where he traveled to ile –ife to established the Yoruba nation (Johnson,1921:4-7).  Okanbi the first born was a princess who was married to a priest, and became the mother of the Olowu, the ancestor of the Owu people. CONT……….  The 2nd child was also princess who became the mother of the Alaketu, the progenitor of the ketu people.  The 3rd child a prince became the king of Benin people.  The 4th child Orangun became the king of Ila.  5th the Onisabe king of Sabe  6th the Olupopo king of the Popos  The 7th and the last born, Oranyan was the king of Oyo(Johnson,1921:7-8)  The Yoruba practices a centralized system of govt presided by an Oba (king) and advisory council of chiefs.  MARRIAGE IN YORUBA SOCIETY  ASSIGNMENT FOR STUDENTS  ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE EDO  The earliest rulers of Benin were Ogizo who presided over a council of chiefs called the Uzama. However , after a long interregnum, an appeal was made by Uzama to ile-ife to send one of his sons to govern their territory. Oranmiyan the son of Oduduwa was sent to Benin but he found the Bini a difficult people to govern. Thus the name Benin was derived from the phrase “ ile Ibinu” (Land of Vexation). Considering these circumstances, Oranmiyan concluded that only a prince of Benin blood could govern the people. Consequently, he married a daughter of a benin chief, who gave birth to a son called Eweka from whom the present line of the kings of Benin is traced.  ORIGIN AND THE SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE IGBO  The history of origin of the Igbo people is shrouded in obscurity. Despite the traditional claim of a Jewish origin. Linguistic evidence suggests that Igbo language evolved alongside the Yoruba, Idoma and Igala in the Niger-Benue confluence. IYI  The Igbo a non-centralized system of govt. The major organ of govt was the council of elders called OHANE-EZE, Umanna, Ofo title holders. The council was presided over by the head of the most senior lineage in the village.  The Arochukwu oracle was the major court of the igbo judiciary and an important mechanism for integration.  You can read more on your own.  MARRIAGE IN IGBO CULTURE  It is a union btw 2 families and not 2 individuals. It consists of 4 parts:  1. Request for the girl’s consent in marriage  2. Appointment of a middle-man  3. Testing of the bride’s character  Payment of bride price and Marriage ceremony. CMTP  Types of Marriage in Igbo land:  Traditional marriage  Modern Marriage  Woman Marriage  Marriage by Photograph  COLONIALISM AND LOCAL RESPONSES  This theme examines the pattern of colonial conquest, rule and the local resistance in Nigeria.  Imperialism is often used as an instrument to achieve colonialism. It is a gradual and tactical process of socio-economic and political subjection.  Colonialism entails the domination and effective occupation of a country by another. Hence colonization is the end product of imperialism. In light of this, the Britain penetrated Nigeria in 4 major forms  1. As explorer  2. Missionaries  3. Traders  4. Diplomatic military invaders  Therefore became colonial masters METI ORIGIN OF IMPERIALISM IN NIGERIA AND AFRICA  The origin of imperialism in Nigeria and Africa can be traced to the aftermath of the 18th century industrial revolution, indeed by the 2nd half of the 19th century sub Sahara Africa was targeted as a viable source of raw material and market for European industries. This circumstance led to the scramble for African territories by disgruntled European states , a conflict that was technically resolved through the Berlin West conference of 1884  In the process of acquisition and occupation of territories, Britain made use of diplomacy and force, this involved the deployment of deceptive treaties, political intervention in local conflicts and the use of arms and ammunitions to attack area s of resistance.  In Nigeria, Lagos was attacked in 1851 and annexed 1861, marking the beginning of British colonial rule in the country.  EUROPEAN CONQUEST AND AFRICAN RESISTNCE  British conquest and establishment of colonial rule in Nigeria was resisted by the indigenes. Resistance movement against colonial rule in Nigeria can be seen as passive, active, and collaborative. CAP The early rulers that effectively resisted colonization were called traditional nationalists. E.g. Nana of Itsekiri fought the British at Ebrohimi in 1894; he was arrested and deported to Ghana. Jaja of Opobo was arrested after prolong resistance and was deported to Accra in 1887. Oba Ovonramwen of Benin strongly resisted the British expedition of 1897 but was arrested and exiled to Calabar, also Oba Mafimisebi 1 of Ugbo was exiled to Calabar in 1921.  COLONIAL SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA  The British instituted a system of indirect rule in colonial Nigeria. Indirect rule was a system of govt in which people are governed through their traditional rulers. While it formed the basis of local government, the central govt of the colony operated in tandem with the British ideologies and practices.  In this way, the Nigerian traditional rulers were the key political instruments for the local govt but are responsible to a British official, or a resident or district officer, who in turn was accountable to the central colonial authority.  Other features of Colonial administration in Nigeria:  The suppression of the local press through the press and sedition laws of 1903.  The exclusion of the educated elite from active political participation  Marginalization of Nigerians as unofficial representation in federal legislature & executive council  CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA  In 1886, Lagos was separated politically from the Gold coast. In 1906, Lagos colony was merged with the southern Nigeria protectorate. In 1914, the southern and northern protectorates were amalgamated to form a single entity.  Nigeria experienced various constitutional changes in the colonial era. In 1922 the Clifford’s constitution was formed and it embodied in it the elective principle, this helped to stimulate formation of political organisations and also served as an avenue to express local grievances.  The new legislative council consisted of 46 members ,27 unofficial and 19 officials.  In 1944, the Richard’s constitution was published. The constitution was designed to promote the unity of Nigeria, to provide adequately for diverse elements of the country and to secure greater participation by Nigerians in their own affairs. Thus the constitution expanded the membership of the federal legislature in order to accommodate more indigenes CONT……  However, the Richard’s constitution was regarded by many Nigerians as an imposition because they were not consulted prior to the draft.  A new constitution was drafted in 1951 known as the Macpherson constitution. In order to avoid the mistake of the previous constitutions, there was a wide measure of consultation with the people down to the village level, this stimulated political consciousness and triggered the development of modern political parties and the centralization of the federal legislature as distinct from the regional legislature.  However, the constitution was discredited for its failure to address the issue of diversity in the country.  B. it was accused of stimulating ethnic nationalism and regional divisions  Cont.…..  In 1954, the lyttleton’s constitution was drafted, this was significant for its provision of revenue allocation based on the principle of derivation, it also provided the basis of the constitution of independent Nigeria. The Lyttleton constitution was the last before the independence, others were conferences.(1957-58)  The 1960 constitution of independence was essentially the 1954 constitution and some amendments made in the 1957 and 1958 constitutional conferences. However, there were no serious discussion about the workability of the constitution in practice and its structure.  CR ML  HOME –MADE 1963 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION  1963 Constitution was home made because it was devoid of personal decree by an alien monarch.  All parties met in Lagos in July 1963  The preamble reflected the indigenous character ‘Having firmly resolved to establish the federal Republic of Nigeria, with a view to ensuring the unity of our people and faith in our fatherland, for the purpose of promoting inter- African cooperation and solidarity, in order to assure World peace and international understanding and so as to further the ends of liberty, equality and justice both in our Country and in the world at large , we the people of Nigeria, by our representatives here in parliament assembled, do hereby declare, enact and give to ourselves the following constitution’  NATIONALISM AND INDEPENDENCE  Nationalism refers to the opposition of foreign rule and struggle for self govt.  Nationalism in Nigeria took 3 major phases:  1. Resistance movement against the penetration of the Europeans (traditional nationalism) embarked upon by various traditional rulers  2. Struggle for active political participation by the educated elites who felt aggrieved as a result of their deliberate exclusion from the British political arrangement. This struggle invoked several constitutional reforms in Nigeria  3. This phase involved the evolution of propaganda, volatile activities and organization aimed at creating a sovereign state of Nigeria  It was gingered by the oppressive ,exploitative and discriminatory treatments of the Nigerians by the British govt.  Some of the Nationalist Movements in this category include  The Zikist movement (1946-1950) which fought against religious imperialism as well as economic colonialism.  The Nigerian youth movement (1934)  West African Students Union (WASU) formed in 1925 by Ladipo Solanke which demanded for political, economic, and social reforms in West Africa.  Political parties such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) (1922) led by Herbert Macaulay, the father of Nigerian nationalism. NCNC (1944) The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) (later changed to the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens) and Action Group (AG) (1951) conveyed nationalist agitations or grievances in the Colonial era. The Nigerian press was decisive in arousing the spirit of nationalism in the people.  The Nigerian press exposed and attacked imperialistic government policies.  Religious protest movements fought against discrimination and segregation in the Nigerian churches. Dr Edward Blyden was a major pillar behind this movement. In Nigeria, this movement led to the establishment of Aladura Churches such as Christ Apostolic Church led by Joseph Ayo Babalola and Cherubim and Seraphim founded by Orimolade Moses.  Factors that led to the Development of Nationalism in Nigeria  Defects inherent in the indirect rule system - imposition of traditional rulers and warrant chiefs.  Western education: This aroused political consciousness in the mind of most Nigerian and therefore influenced their constitutional struggle. Struggle for fundamental human rights.  Formation of political parties was very instrumental to the rise of nationalism.  The economic depression of the interwar period [1930-1939] stimulated nationalist agitation.  The second world war [1939-1945] and the Atlantic charter which was issued during the war promised universal human rights for all races and logically liquidated colonialism.  Means adopted in achieving independence  Nigerian nationalists adopted two major tools in achieving independence, i.e. dialogue and propaganda. They engage in dialogue with the colonial masters in conferences on the issues of self-rule in 1957 and 1958. In the 1958 conference it was resolved that Nigeria would be independent on October 1, 1960. These conferences were products of propaganda and protests from the civil society such as the press, trade union and other pressure groups.   MODULE SIX CIVIL AND MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA  Based on the provisions of the Lyttleton constitution (1954) the western and the Eastern regions were granted regional self-government in August 1957, while the North deferred till March 1959. The status of regional self- government meant the exclusion of the British regional governor from the executive council while he retains the veto power. Nigeria became independence on October I, 1960 and a Republic in 1963 when the declaration of independence was signed.  Obafemi Awolowo as the Premier of the Western region and Michael Okpara as the Premier in the Eastern region. Ahmadu Bello was the premier of the Northern regions. At independence, the country was organized into three geopolitical regions- Western, Eastern and the Northern regions and its political parties were fragmented across this ethno- religious divide: the Northern People’s Party (NPC) – Hausa- Fulani, National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) -Igbo, Action Group - Yoruba. The NPC was dominant in the National parliament and formed a coalition government with the NCNC. Consequently, Tafawa Balewa of the NPC became the Prime Minister while Nnamdi Azikiwe of NCNC became the ceremonial President. Ladoke Akintola succeeded Obafemi Awolowo  A conflict between Obafemi Awolowo and Ladoke Akintola led to a crisis in the house of Assembly. A state of emergence under the administration of M.A. Majekodunmi was enforced in 1962.  Akintola under a political alliance forged between the Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP) and the Northern People Congress (NPC) returned as premier in 1965 under very suspicious circumstance of election rigging. Chief Obafemi Awolowo was charged with felony and imprisoned on 11 Sept 1963. This event triggered widespread unrest in the Western region of Nigeria.  On the 15th of January 1966, a bloody Military Coup was executed (led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu) which unseated the first civilian administration (Tafawa Balewa) in independent Nigeria. The military intervention claimed the lives of mostly politicians from northern and Western region of Nigeria. General Aguiyi Ironsi became the Head of State. He was overthrown on 9th of July 1966 in bloody reprisals coup (led by Theophilus Danjuma) conducted by officers mainly from the Northern part of Nigeria. Gowon managed the Nigerian Civil War (1967-70) and was supplanted by Muritala Mohammed in July, 1975. Muritala was assassinated in a failed coup of 13th Feb. 1976 and Olusegun Obasanjo his deputy became Head of state.  Obasanjo transferred power to a civilian regime of Shehu Shagari on 1st Oct. 1979. Shagari was toppled by another military coup on the 31st Dec. 1983. Mohammadu Buhari became Head of state and was overthrown in August 25, 1985 by Ibrahim Babangida. After annulling the freest election in Nigeria history amidst violent protest, Babangida stepped aside and an interim national government headed by Mr Shonekan survived between 26th August and 17th November 1993 when it fell victim of yet another military coup by Sani Abacha.  Sani Abacha died in June 1998 and was succeeded by Abubakar Abdusalam who remained in office till 29th May 1999 when the third Republic commenced under the regime of Olusegun Obasanjo. Olusegun Obasanjo handed over to the civilian regime of Umar Yar’dua in 29 May 2007. Umar Yardua died on 5th May 2010 and its deputy Goodluck Jonathan became president and was unseated by Mohammodu Buhari in the presidential elections of 2015. Factors that led to Military Intervention in Nigerian Politics:  Nepotism /Tribalism  Electoral Malpractices  Corruption  Lawlessness  Poor Governance PLENC  Structure of Military Administration in Nigeria:  The super-ordinate body of the military government was known at different times as supreme military council (SMC). Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC), National Defense and Security Council (NDSC), the provisional Ruling Council (PRC).  Next in the hierarchy was the Federal Executive Council (advisory body of Ministers/bureaucrats). This was replicated at the state level as state Executive Council(SEC).  Legacies of Military Rule:  Infrastructural Development, Corruption, NYSC: Extrajudicial killings. N.B: FOR EXAM  MODULE SEVEN PATTERN OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA  This topic examines the historical dynamics of the Nigerian economy from the pre-colonial era to the present. The structure of the pre- colonial economy of Nigeria can be divided into Agricultural and non- Agricultural clusters. In the agricultural sector, the farming system includes shifting cultivation and crop rotation due to abundance of land.  In this era, agricultural technology (hoes, cutlasses) was in tandem with market demands. The non-agricultural sector includes the practice of hunting, mineral working, leather working, blacksmithing, textile, weaving and dying, pottery making and sculpturing. The colonial economy of Nigeria was characterized by export focused agriculture, mining and manufacturing  The agricultural base of the economy was concerned with the cultivation and production of principal cash crops such as oil palm, cocoa, groundnut, rubber, and timber as well as cotton at commercial levels. The non-agricultural sector was concerned mainly with the manufacturing of hide and skin and the mining of mineral deposits such as iron ore, tin and precious materials.  The economy was monetized and the state played a major role of a regulator as exemplified by the activities of the marketing boards. In the colonial era, marketing boards were established by the colonial government as agencies responsible for securing cash crops for British industries. The marketing boards determined what the farmers produced and sold. The agricultural sector contributed over 60% of the GDP and 95% of Nigeria’s food needs up to the 1960s. In realization of the importance of agriculture to the national; economy, the federal government initiated agricultural policies, programme and projects within the framework of National Economic Development plans from 1962-1985 (1962- 68, 1970-74, 1981-85). This was necessary in order to ensure adequate food supplies, expand the production of export crops and create rural employment opportunities.   By 1986, the failure of the national economic development plans necessitated the adoption of a comprehensive package of agricultural policy published in 1987. The policy was implemented through Agricultural Development Projects (ADP) in partnership with the Federal government and the World Bank. It should be noted that with the emergence of crude oil as a major foreign exchange earner, the agricultural sector was disrupted and dislocated. Consequently, as from 1975, Nigeria became an importer of various agricultural produce. The fall in the international price of crude oil in the late 1970s and early 1980s led to economic crisis in the country.  Structural Adjustment Programme was introduced in 1986 as a solution to the economic depression. SAP led to the devaluation of Nigerian currency and greater poverty in the country.  Other factors that contribute to the economic decline of the Nigerian state in the post independent era include; corruption, poor governance, and the debt burden