New 2024 Psychology Test Review PDF

Psychology Unit Test Review PSYCHOLOGY Branches of Psychology- Definitions and focus for each Branch Definition Structuralism - Founded by William Wundt - Experiments on sensation, perception, and attention...

Psychology Unit Test Review PSYCHOLOGY Branches of Psychology- Definitions and focus for each Branch Definition Structuralism - Founded by William Wundt - Experiments on sensation, perception, and attention - ex. optical illusions - Problem with this branch: people don’t tell the truth Functionalism - Founded by American William James - This branch is connected to Charles Darwin - like how our physical characteristics developed to survive, our mental characteristics adapted to survive too Psychoanalysis - Developed by Sigmund Freud in the late 1800s to early 1900s - Aim is to discover unconscious thoughts - Discuss their background with a trained psychologist (talk therapy) Behaviourism - Founded by John Watson - Since the mind itself cannot be observed, behaviour was the only available source of data - Only branch that focuses solely on external factors - Behaviour added to psychology definition in 1920 because of all his work Humanism - Developed in the 1950s - Founded by Abraham Maslow - Humanists believe that people take control of their lives - They believe your background/experiences are not important - This branch conflicts with Behaviourism and abnormal psychology Cognitive Psychology - Study of mental processes involved in memory, learning, and thinking - It has roots as far back as the late 19th C. when efforts were made to design intelligence tests - However, it expanded in the 1950s - Researching the brain and its processes (how you process information) Definition of Psychology - Scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. - It is the science of the mind - Psychologists study the relationship between the brain, mind and behaviour  - Psyche = mind - ology = study of History of Psychology Discipline: Ancient Greeks and Personality: - Wondered why people had personalities - Believed each person had 4 fluids in their body and that different combinations of these fluids caused different personality types - problem: only so many combinations, so many people will have the same personality - Greeks are important as they were the first to consider individuality - that personality comes from somewhere in your body, not God Hippocrates (460 BCE): - Noted that people with brain injuries acted differently from most people - He is significant as he brought attention to the fact that the brain impacts personality - Believed the brain is a source of “pleasures, joys, laughter, pain, sorrow” - Challenged common belief that this took place in the heart John Locke (17th Century): - Believed mind received information from the senses, then turns this into complex ideas in the brain, and then draws conclusions - First to use the word mind Phrenology- Franz Joseph Gall: - started at beginning of 19th century - early attempt to understand behaviour - phrenologists believe that human personality can be determined based off the bumps on your head - Phrenology: study of the structure of the skull to determine a person’s character and mental capacity - divided brain into different regions - no factual science in his theory, but brought attention to studying the entire brain for personality, that we use our entire brain, and that different regions control different things - Advanced the correct notions that the brain is the seat of character, emotions, perception, intellect Parts and Lobes of the Brain- Neuroscience Frontal Lobe Responsible for… Location: right under the forehead Personality, emotional response, language Largest Lobe usage, words associations and meaning, memory for habits, suppressing socially inappropriate behaviour, predicts consequences of actions, plays a role in the choice between good and bad actions, short term memory Parietal Lobe Responsible for… Location: back top of the head Sensory perception and integration, interpretation of touch, object manipulation, goal directed voluntary movements, helps with the understanding of objects, shapes and space  Temporal Lobe Responsible for… Location: on the side of the head above the ears Auditory perception (hearing), Long term memory, object categorization, visual memory and recognition of objects Occipital Lobe Responsible for… Location: back of the head Visual Perception (where, how and what we are seeing), distance and depth perception, colour determination, object and face recognition Cerebellum (not a lobe) Responsible for… Location: beside the brainstem Balance and coordination, voluntary motor skills (ex: playing a sport) Brainstem (also not a lobe) Responsible for… Location: connected to the spinal cord Transfers information between the brain and the body, plays a role in automatic functions such as breathing and heartbeat, coordinating movement and timing muscle actions Amygdala: - Works with the hippocampus to create long term memories of specific & often emotional events. - It is known for linking fear, aggression and anxiety to knowledge of people or places. - By hard wiring memories of emotional events, the amygdala ensures threats can be recognized and avoided in the future - Almond shaped - causes aggression in males Hippocampus: - Converts short term memories into long term memories by organizing, storing, and retrieving memories within your brain - Causes emotion - bigger in females (why we’re more emotional), squishes amygdala, why females are not as aggressive Medulla - Houses breathing control centres, including an area called the pre-Botzinger complex, which generates breathing rhythm (regulates breathing) Pons: contains the locus ceruleus, an area important for attention Hypothalamus - Provides a link between the central nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord) and the endocrine system (glands that release hormones) - The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that regulate various bodily functions - Signals from the hypothalamus keep the body temperature in check, regulate thirst & hunger, oversee the tick-tocking for our circadian rhythms Pituitary Gland - produces and releases hormones controlling various bodily functions & behaviours - Key component of the endocrine system and helps relay signals from the hypothalamus to glands throughout the body  - The regulation of stress, growth and reproduction are three of the various responsibilities of the pituitary gland Thalamus: - Relays information about most of our senses out to the rest of the brain, and is considered the “grand central station” for sorting sensory information before it connects on to the cortex - Vision, hearing, touch, proprioception, and taste signals are all routed through the thalamus before being sent to their respective processing centres in the cerebral cortex Right and Left Brain Functioning: Roger Sperry Left Hemisphere - The logical and analytical hemisphere of the brain - controls right side of the body - more logical and rational If you are Left Hemisphere dominant.. - verbal - looks at small details - logical and rational decision maker - cautious - objective - language skills - skilled movement Right Hemisphere - The creative and intuitive hemisphere of the brain - Controls the left side of the body - More creative, innovative, and imaginative If you are Right Hemisphere dominant - Non-verbal (visual) - Looks at the whole picture - Intuitive and creative - Adventurous - Subjective - Reading and expressing emotions - Reading faces and body language Right side of brain controls left side of body and vice versa Specific facts about the brain (top 10) 1. The human brain weighs 3 pounds 2. It comprises of 60% fat and is one of the fattest organs in the human body 3. Human brain has the capacity to generate approximately 23 watts if power when awake 4. Of the total blood and oxygen that is produced in our body, the brain gets 20% of it 5. When the blood supply to the brain stops, it is almost after 8-10 seconds that the brain starts losing consciousness 6. The brain is capable of surviving for 5 to 6 minutes without oxygen, only if it doesn't get oxygen after which it dies 7. The blood vessels that are present in the brain are almost 100,000 miles in length 8. There are 100 billion neurons present in the brain 9. In early pregnancy, the neurons develop at an alarming rate of 250,000 per minute 10. As we grow older, we are unable to remember new things. According to the researchers in the US it is because the brain is unable to filter and remove old memories which prevent it from absorbing new ideas  11. Boy brain is bigger than girl brain Sigmund Freud- Biography of Freud’s life - Born 1856 in Austria - Studied medicine in Vienna - neurotic himself - children (favourite was Anna) - addicted to cigars + cocaine problem Psychoanalysis + Dreams - His theory - based on the belief that unlocking the unconscious mind is the key to understanding behaviour - Released book called “Interpretation of Dreams” - Book burned in WWII (he was Jewish) - Our id is repressed constantly and this manifests into dreams (why they don’t make sense) - Believed dreams are a gateway to our unconscious mind and are wish-fulfillments (wishes are a result of repressed sexual desires) - Anxiety surrounding these dreams manifest into nightmares Theory of Personality (id, ego, superego): - mind divided into 2 parts: conscious (info we’re aware of) and unconscious (info processing we’re unaware of - holds our thoughts, feelings, and memories) - Personality is explained through how the id, ego, and superego interact with each other (Iceberg model) - This theory helps us to understand neurotic disorders The ID (0-2 years old) - Our pleasure principle (food, sleep and sex) - We are born with it - Important as newborns as it allows us to get our basic needs met - Instinctual and selfish part of our mind. - Most influential - Freudian Slips is when you give into your id The Ego (3-5 years old) - Second part of personality, reality principle - Meets needs of id while taking into consideration the reality of the situation - Begin to understand that there are other people - develop awareness The Superego (by age 5) - Morality principle - right vs. wrong - Develops due to moral and ethical restraints given by caregivers (it is external) - Changes as we grow - A healthy person has a more dominant ego, as it will satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, while still taking in consideration of the reality of the situation  - If there is a struggle between the 3, or if someone forces one of the parts to develop, you can develop neurotic disorders - need therapist/psychoanalyst to help - He believes that we should not be held directly responsible for our actions Psychosexual Stages of Development - Explains neurotic disorders through theses stages (if you had a problem in one of them) - This theory states that personality develops in a series of stages, each centred around biological drives - Experiences in these stages influence adult behaviour Stage 1: Oral (0-2 years old) Libido: mouth Key Tasks: Infants derive pleasure from oral TRUST vs MISTRUST activities such as sucking and eating Fixation: if this is not fulfilled, it can lead to becoming distrusting or overly trusting, smoking, overreacting, nail biting, or talking excessively Stage 2: Anal (2-3 years old) Libido: Potty training Fixation: if you are forced to go, you can INDEPENDENCE vs DEPENDENCE develop anal-rententive personality (feeling the need to be in control/organized - ex. OCD). Lack of attention to potty training can lead to an anal expulsive personality (disorganized) Stage 3: Phallic (3-6 years old) Key Tasks: the child becomes aware of sexual differences and experience the Oedipus SEXUAL ASSOCIATION (Your role in the complex world) + jealous of opposite sex + Oedipus - Oedipus Complex (for boys) or Electra complex complex (for girls) - Freud never mentions women in his theory - Electra is a Greek theory - Unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent - Boys look for a partner that reminds them of their mom Stage 4: Latency (6-Puberty) Libido: sexual feelings are dormant, don’t care about male or female Key Tasks: focus on making friends and FORMING RELATIONSHIPS learning (boys and girls play together) - Develop social and intellectual skills and find hobbies If you don’t develop these skills and make friends, you may be a loner Stage 5: Gential (Puberty-Death) Libido: genitals (mature intimacy) Key Tasks: develops a stronger sense of self and sexual relationships Fixation: successful resolution of earlier stages  leads to a well-adjusted, mature individual - Fixations in earlier stages however, could affect the individual's ability to form healthy adult relationships Importance of Freud: - showed the importance of focusing on childhood to explain behaviours - importance of talk therapy, hypnotism, and dream analysis Dreams- Manifest vs. Latent Dreams: - Dreams composed of two parts - manifest: what a person remembers when they wake up. This part of the dream has little meaning, as it is the disguised representation of the true meaning - latent: content that holds true meaning - need psychoanalysis to uncover this meaning History of Dreams, REM Egypt: - In egyptian times, people believed that dreams were messages from God The Bible/ Biblical Times - Believed dreams were also messages from God (ex. Angel Gabriel) Middle Ages: - Christians etc. believed that nightmares are from the Devil (not all dreams from God) - This belief allowed them to control people - convinced them to go to Church etc. Biology of Dreams: - After Freud, in 1950s, scientists discovered Rapid Eye Movement (REM) - intense brain activity when sleeping - Adults spend about ¼ of their sleep in REM, much of it dreaming - REM happens in last stage of sleep (stage 5) Alfred Adler (neo-Freudian): - worked with Freud from 1902-1911 - rejected Freud’s theory that sexuality is the key to understanding personality - Believed it is the feeling of power instead - Created individual psychology and inferiority complex or superiority complex - examples of power: fear/intimidation, authority, superiority, demands etc Inferiority Complex: - Low-self esteem - A feeling of intense insecurity, inferiority or of not measuring up - People feel inferior at some point and try to compensate by seeking experiences that give them a false sense of power Difference of Approach: - Freud believed people are motivated by unconscious desires and that dreams represent sexual repression and frustration - Adler believed that people are aware of their goals and values that guide them and that dreams are important to understanding personality - rejected idea that dreams are more about sexuality Power as Fundamental to Personality: - People are maladjusted because they choose to pursue goals that are useless to themselves and society - They do this because they lack self-esteem (feeling of being powerless) - If they gain self-esteem then they would pursue worth wild goals and become well-adjusted Carl Jung (neo-Freudian): - Worked with Freud in 1907, but split from him because of his disagreement over importance of sexuality as central to understanding personality - Created analytical psychology (includes free association) - Believed the unconscious mind is broken up into two parts - Personal: unique to the individual - Collective: memories of ancestors - Believed personality is divided into 4 psychological functions - sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling - Personality depended on which type dominated thoughts and actions - Did not believe in id, ego and superego Two Basic Personality Types: - Introvert - people that use their psychological power to look inward, are emotionally self-serving, do not need many close personal relationships - Extrovert - use psychological power to look outward, people who are outgoing and like to be in big friend groups Karen Horney: - psychoanalyst - disagreed with Freud’s sexual perspective that motivated the unconscious - Brought feminism into psychology Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning (1849-1936) - Nobel prize winning Russian physiologist (not psychologist) - Known for his dog experiments, and is the man behind classical conditioning - Looks for digestion patterns in dogs Classical conditioning: a type of learning where a once neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairing with a conditioned stimulus (outcome depends on response) - What inspired behaviourism Dog Experiment Example: NS: Sound of Bell (has no meaning) UCS: Food (what you instinctively react to) UCR: Salvation CS: Sound of Bell (NS becomes CS) CR: Salvation B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning (1904-1990) - American psychologist who was the father of operant conditioning Operant conditioning: a type of learning that uses rewards or punishments to achieve a desired behaviour or discourage an unwanted one (response depends on outcome + or -) Positive reinforcement: an event, situation or condition that increase the likelihood that certain behaviour will reoccur vs Negative reinforcement: an event, situation or condition that decreases the likelihood of certain behaviour occurring again - positive reinforcement more influential - believed anything could be taught through positive or negative reinforcement - Negative reinforcement is more prominent in society John Watson - Behaviourism (1878-1958) - Father of behaviourism in 1920 - Known for Baby Albert experiment (point of experiment is that fear is a conditioned response - learned) - Believed we are all born with a tabula rasa (blank slate) - conditioned an infant to fear a white rat with a loud noise - child died at age 6 (hydrocephalus) Erik Erikson- Stages of Development - Developmental psychologist - German psychologist and child analyst Erik Erikson was a neo-Freduian in terms of child development and his understanding of the ego - Freud's Stages of psychosexual development influenced his thinking, but he believed that humans continue to develop over their lifetime rather than just in childhood - He also differed from Freud in that he believed that individual growth depends on society, not just personal experiences - Freud unconscious mind - Erikson environment and relationships (external factors) - not just in childhood - Invented term Identity crisis; a time in a teenagers life filled with extreme self consciousness as he or she attempts to test and integrate various roles - Problems in these stages causes identity crisis Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Abraham Maslow- Hierarchy of Needs: - Father of humanistic psychology - Set up a hierarchy of basic needs  - people usually stuck on and motivated by the first three, as you must fulfill your first need to move on to the next stage - He believed that people strive for an upper level of capabilities (best version of yourself) - Called this level the “self-actualizing person” (ex. Gandhi, Mother Teresa, Jesus) - Only 2% of people reach this Maslow’s Idea About Values: - Maslow described what values were important in defining one’s being, called them B values - These B values are used to describe self-actualization - ex. truth, beauty, goodness, uniqueness (being satisfied based off what is internal) Jean Piaget- Learning Stages S.P.C.F.: - French psychologist - Highly influential figure in developmental psychology and cognitive psychology - Children’s capacity to reason could be measured in 4 phases Perception/ Ink Blots- Rorschach Inkblot testing: - Psychiatrist and psychoanalyst - Employed projective tests to examine a person’s personality  - Used 10 inkblots to do so - Looks at perception Perception: - Human mental processes divided in two stages: sensation and perception - Perception is the process that allows us to select, organize and interpret sensory signals in the brain - Perception is influenced by 3 factors - object itself, background/surroundings, experiences and feelings of the person who is perceiving - Sensation and perception are closely related to learning and memory Stanley Milgram - Theory of Obedience: - Developmental psychologist - Known for experiments on obedience and authority. - Studied those who justified actions from WWII - Experiment with the teacher and learner - When learner got the answer wrong, teacher would be told by the experimenter to administer a shock (up to 450 volts - could lead to death) - Prods to convince teacher to keep going - Concluded that people were willing to obey an authority figure even if the actions went against their morals, especially if the authority figure is willing to take responsibility - 65% (2/3) of participants/teachers continued to the highest level of 450 volts. All the participants continued to 300 volts. - Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up. Harry Harlow: - Developmental psychologist - Known for social isolation experiments with rhesus monkeys - Separated young rhesus monkeys from their mothers shortly after birth - Monkeys were instead raised by surrogate wire and cloth monkey mothers - Examined maternal separation & social isolation - Showed the importance of… - Caregiving - Affection - Social relationships early in life - Regardless of whether or not the cloth covered mother provided food, the infant monkeys would cling to her for comfort - The monkeys would only select the wire mother when she provided food - Importance of emotional comfort Other Experiment Results: - Raising rhesus monkeys either in total or partial isolation. - Harlow and his students found that such isolation led to a variety of negative outcomes including: severe psychological disturbances & even death. Memory: - The capacity to acquire, retain and recall knowledge and skills (acquire through our senses) - The temporal lobe is responsible for memories Three Levels of Memory: - Sensory: receive information from the environment through our senses, records this info for only a few seconds to record what is necessary from the environment - Short-term: info that catches your attention and what you think is important, refers to what is going on in your conscious mind, holds info up to 15-20 seconds. If you continue to work with this information, it will stay longer. If not, it will either discard or be stored in long-term memory - can store up to 7 unorganized items at a time in short-term memory - Long-term: items that are important and have meaning to you, there is no limit, can retain as much information as we want for as long as we want (don’t get full like a computer), however we cannot always recall everything at will Amnesia: Partial or Total Loss of Memory (ESP): - Episodic: ability to remember events from the past (Severely impaired) - Semantic: knowledge of how the world works (Mildly impaired ) - Procedural: memory of how to do things (is intact) Psychopaths vs. Sociopaths: - Psychopath: one who is visibly affected by an extreme neurosis or psychosis (clouds their judgement) - Sociopath: one who behaves or acts on psychosis. Affects normal public behaviour and behaviour of others - Enough control to act “normal” in social situations - Very methodical, why they keep killing and won’t get caught Characteristics of a Sociopath: - Feeling of superiority, grandiose sense of self, lack of remorse, shallow emotions, manipulative, superficial charm, juvenile delinquency, incapacity of love ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Mental health: describes a level of cognitive or emotional well-being of an individual. An absence of a mental disorder. Mental illness: is a psychological pattern generally associated with distress or disability that occurs in an individual which is not part of a normal development or culture *about 20% of canadians will experience mental illness (1 in 5)* Neurosis: is a general term referring to mental distress. It serves to perpetuate self-doubt, anxiety and ultimately the neurosis (can continue to live life without medical intervention) - is extreme anxiety manifested - but are in the right frame of mind to give an excuse for their behaviour through defense mechanisms - Neurotic disorders can be learned or psychologically based Common Examples of Neurosis - Phobias: anxiety about a specific object, activity, or situation (fear of heights, spiders) - Panic Attacks - Eating disorders → 1.Anorexia: not eating 2.Ballemia: purging 3.Obesity: overeating 4.Pika: eating things that are not food - Obsessive Compulsive Disorder = OCD (constant hand washing) - Post Traumatic Stress Disorder = PTSD (flashbacks from serving in the army) *Any addictions, compulsive behaviours or anxieties fall under neurosis* Defense Mechanisms Denial: The refusal to accept reality and to act as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist Regression: is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of an unacceptable impulse Repression: is the blocking of unacceptable impulses from consciousness Rationalization: The cognitive reframing of one's perceptions to protect the ego in the face of changing realities Fantasy: The channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination *Are used only by people with neurosis because they use them to justify their actions* Psychosis: is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state involving the loss of contact with reality, causing the deterioration of normal social functioning (needs medical attention to function) - makes it difficult to distinguish what is real and what is not Common Examples of Psychosis - Hallucinations/Delusions - Schizophrenia - Bipolar Disorder (more mood disturbance than thought disturbance) - Drug induced psychosis - Alzheimer's: neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and progressively worsens DSM- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders - The DSM lists criteria used by mental-health professionals to make their various diagnoses - There are 350 diagnoses in the DSM - It was first published in 1952 - 1000 mental health professionals help revise and produce the DSM - Homosexuality (1974) and Identity disorder were removed from the DSM - PTSD and ADHD were added to the DSM in the 1980s Neurosis- Anxiety, Phobias, Compulsions (Something you feel like you must do - Eating disorders, OCD) , Agoraphobia (Crowds cause you anxiety), OCD, Eating Disorders, Adjustment Disorders Psychosis- Schizophrenia, Bi-Polar Disorder (Manic Depression - extreme), Clinical Depression, Dementia, Autism, Alzheimer’s) Facts about Mental Illness