networking_merged.pdf

Networking 2 Review of Networking Basics Lesson 1 Review of Networking Basics Network Topologies Networking Devices OSI Model IP Addressing Network Topologies Network topologies refer to the layout pattern of nodes and wiring in a communication network. This la...

Networking 2 Review of Networking Basics Lesson 1 Review of Networking Basics Network Topologies Networking Devices OSI Model IP Addressing Network Topologies Network topologies refer to the layout pattern of nodes and wiring in a communication network. This layout determines the physical or logical structure through which network devices are interconnected. Network Topologies Star Topology Devices are connected to a single central hub. The central hub is not as prominently visible. It's usually a network switch or router that might be stored in a server room or cabinet. Network Topologies Ring Topology The "ring" aspect is more about how the data travels and the logical setup rather than the physical arrangement of the components. Data travels in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions. Network Topologies Bus Topology All devices are connected to a single communication line. Typically involves a single communication line (the bus) that all network devices connect to directly. Network Topologies Mesh Topology Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. This topology is often used in environments where communication must remain available at all times, such as in data centers or critical infrastructure setups. Networking Devices Routers Connect multiple networks, direct data packets, and handle traffic within a network using headers and forwarding tables. Archer AX55 | AX3000 Dual Band Gigabit Wi-Fi 6 Router | TP-Link Australia Networking Devices Switches Operate at the data link layer to connect devices within the same network Cisco’s Industry-Standard Network Switch and filter traffic by analyzing MAC addresses. Networking Devices Gateways These facilitate communication between different networks, often integrating networks with different protocols. (IP, Moxa Gateways Ethernet , SMTP, POP, TCP, UDP, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP) Networking Devices Modems Used for encoding and decoding data between digital and analog formats for internet communication. Networking Devices Hubs Simple devices connecting multiple Ethernet devices, acting as a single network segment. Hub Ethernet - Homecare24 Bridge Connect multiple networks, operate at the data link layer, and filter traffic by storing MAC addresses. Networking Devices Brouters A combination of bridges and routers, they can filter data as well as direct it to specific parts of a network. They operate at both the data link layer and the network layer, which allows them to filter data like a bridge and route packets like a router. OSI Model The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework for understanding network interactions in seven layers. OSI Model OSI Layer Function Examples Physical Layer Handles the physical transmission of raw data Ethernet cables, fiber optics, NICs Data Link Layer Manages data frames between network devices Switches, bridges Network Layer Handles the routing of data packets Routers Transport Layer Provides reliable data transfer TCP, UDP Session Layer Manages sessions between applications APIs, sockets Presentation Layer Translates data formats between network & app Encryption, data compression protocols Application Layer Supports application services for networking HTTP, SMTP, FTP IP Addressing IP addressing involves assigning a unique numeric identifier to each device on a network. These addresses allow devices to locate each other and exchange information. Two types of IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6 IPv4 addresses consist of four octets separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1). IPv6 addresses are longer, consisting of eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated by colons, providing a larger address space to accommodate the growth of the internet. (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334) IPv4 and IPv6 Feature IPv4 IPv6 Address Space Uses 32-bit addresses, allowing for 2^32 (about 4.29 Uses 128-bit addresses, providing 2^128 (about 340 billion) unique addresses. Techniques like NAT are undecillion) possible addresses, eliminating the need for used to extend its usage despite the limited number. NAT and addressing the issue of IP exhaustion. Notation Expressed in decimal format, segmented into four Notated in hexadecimal format, divided into eight groups octets separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1). separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Supports abbreviations like omitting leading zeros and using a double colon (::) to condense consecutive zeros. Configuration Configuration can be manual or via DHCP. Requires Supports auto-configuration capabilities such as SLAAC, careful management to avoid IP conflicts. allowing devices to generate their own addresses without server intervention. Subnetting Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable segments called subnets. It involves using a subnet mask to split an IP address into parts that identify the subnet and the host within that subnet. This practice increases routing efficiency, enhances network security, and optimizes the use of IP addresses within a network by allowing more flexible control over network design and addressing. Benefits of Subnetting Improved Network Performance and Speed: By dividing larger networks into smaller, manageable subnets, network congestion is reduced, and performance is enhanced. Enhanced Security: Subnetting can isolate network segments, restricting access to sensitive information and reducing the potential reach of security breaches. Efficient Use of IP Addresses: Subnetting allows allocating IP addresses to different departments or locations without needing multiple network classes. Subnet Calculation Example Scenario: Suppose you have an IPv4 address of 192.168.1.0 with a standard subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (a /24 network, indicating that the first 24 bits are the network part). Goal: Create four subnets. Process: Convert the subnet mask to binary: 255.255.255.0 → 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 Borrow two bits from the host part to create additional subnets: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 (255.255.255.192) This new subnet mask (/26) provides: Four subnets (2^2, as two bits were borrowed) 62 hosts per subnet (2^(32-26) - 2 for network and broadcast addresses) Subnet Calculation Example Subnet Breakdown: Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.63 Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64 to 192.168.1.127 Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.191 Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192 to 192.168.1.255 Review of Networking Basics Network Topologies Networking Devices OSI Model IP Addressing Advanced Routing Protocols IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 2 Advanced Routing Protocols Routing Protocols Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols ○ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) ○ EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) ○ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Routing Protocols Routing protocols are specialized algorithms or rules routers use to determine the most efficient path forwarding data across a network. These protocols enable routers to communicate with each other, sharing information that allows them to select routes between any two nodes on a computer network. The route choice is based on criteria such as the number of hops, network traffic, link costs, or path reliability, ensuring that data packets are delivered most effectively. Key Functions of Routing Protocols Path Determination: Calculating the most efficient path for data to travel from a source to a destination. Route Advertisement: Broadcasting information about these paths to other routers on the network. Route Update: Modifying routing tables based on new information or changes in the network. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) OSPF is a link-state routing protocol. It is used within a single autonomous system (AS) and is one of the most widely used interior gateway protocols (IGP) in large enterprise networks. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Functionality: OSPF routers maintain a map of the network that is updated after any change in network topology. It uses the Dijkstra algorithm to calculate the shortest path through the network based on the link-state information. Advantages: OSPF offers fast convergence, scalable design, and efficient routing updates. It supports complex hierarchies with multiple areas, reducing the amount of routing information each router must process. EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol, which is sometimes described as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. Initially proprietary to Cisco systems but now partially open standard, it is widely used in enterprise networks to automate routing decisions and configuration. EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Functionality: EIGRP uses the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to ensure loop-free and reliable routing. It only sends incremental updates, reducing the bandwidth used for routing protocols. Advantages: EIGRP is known for its speed and efficiency in converging and its ability to balance load across multiple routes that have equal cost. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) BGP is a path-vector routing protocol. It is used between different autonomous systems on the internet and is classified as an exterior gateway protocol (EGP). BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Functionality: BGP exchanges routing and reachability information among edge routers on the internet. It makes routing decisions based on paths, network policies, or rule-sets configured by a network administrator, which can involve multiple hops and is not solely based on shortest path. Advantages: BGP is essential for the operation of the internet. It allows for policy-based routing, which is crucial for maintaining large-scale networks like the internet. It can manage thousands of routes and updates dynamically to changes in network conditions. Feature OSPF (Open EIGRP (Enhanced BGP (Border Gateway Shortest Path First) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Protocol) Type Link-state routing Advanced distance-vector Path-vector protocol protocol routing protocol, often described as a hybrid Operational Used within a single Originally proprietary to Cisco Used between different Environment autonomous system but now partially open autonomous systems, Exterior (AS), Interior Gateway standard, used within a single Gateway Protocol (EGP) Protocol (IGP) AS (IGP) Mechanism - Exchanges link-state - Uses the Diffusing Update - Exchanges routing and advertisements (LSAs) Algorithm (DUAL) for loop-free reachability information among to build a network map- routing- Sends partial updates ASes- Determines best path Uses the Dijkstra reducing bandwidth usage based on policy, not just algorithm to compute the shortest path shortest path Use Cases - Ideal for medium to large - Predominantly used in smaller - Essential for Internet routing enterprise networks- to medium-sized networks- between different ISPs- Used in Supports complex Suitable for Cisco environments large-scale networks where topologies with multiple policy-based routing is required areas Advantages - Fast convergence- Highly - Quick convergence and route - Highly scalable- Manages scalable- Robust fault redundancy- Supports unequal thousands of routes- Allows tolerance- Efficient traffic cost path load balancing complex routing policies management Key - IGP, suitable for internal - IGP, simpler and more efficient - EGP, crucial for Internet routing- network routing- Shares but less versatile outside Cisco Exchanges path and policy Differences complete link-state environments information with other information autonomous systems Convergence Typically faster than BGP, Generally faster than BGP, Slower, due to complex decision due to simpler decision optimized for quick adaptations processes involving vast route Speed processes within its operational scope and policy information Protocol High complexity due to Less complex compared to High complexity due to the need area configurations and OSPF and BGP, designed for to manage large-scale policy and Complexity LSA types efficiency path attribute configurations Advanced Routing Protocols Routing Protocols Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols ○ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) ○ EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) ○ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Network Security IT 135 - Lesson 3 Network Security What is Network Security? Advantages and Importance of Network Security Types of Network Security Key Tools of Network Security How Network Security Works What is Network Security? Network security involves implementing technologies, processes, and policies designed to protect the integrity, confidentiality, and accessibility of computer networks and data. The primary goal is to prevent unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction, or improper disclosure, thereby creating a secure platform for computers, users, and programs. Advantages and Importance of Network Security Protection Against Threats Business Continuity Compliance and Trust Types of Network Security Physical Security Technical Security Administrative Security Types of Network Security Physical Security Physical security refers to the measures taken to protect the physical infrastructure of an organization, including hardware, buildings, and sensitive areas, from physical actions and events that could cause serious loss or damage. Examples: Access Control, Surveillance, Environmental Controls Types of Network Security Technical Security Technical security involves the use of software and hardware technologies to protect data and resources within the network. This type of security focuses on safeguarding information from cyber threats and ensuring data integrity and confidentiality during transmission and storage. Examples: Encryption, Firewalls, Antivirus / Anti-malware Software, IDPS Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS): Monitors network traffic for suspicious activities and reacts automatically to block potential threats. Types of Network Security Administrative Security Administrative security includes the policies, procedures, and controls that govern user access and behavior within the network. It involves setting rules for how the network is used and how data is managed, aligning security practices with organizational goals and regulatory requirements. Examples: Security Policies and Procedures, User Authentication and Authorization, Training and Awareness Programs Key Tools of Network Security Firewalls: Acts as a barrier between trusted and untrusted networks, controlling incoming and outgoing traffic based on security rules. Antivirus and Anti-malware Software: Scans the network and connected devices for malicious software and files, removing or quarantining them to prevent damage. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS): Monitors network traffic for suspicious activities and reacts by blocking or reporting them. Virtual Private Networks (VPN): Creates a secure and encrypted connection over a less secure network, typically the internet. Encryption Tools: Ensures data security by encoding the information sent across the network, making it accessible only to those who possess the decryption keys. How Network Security Works Network Security Principles (CIA Triad) 1. Confidentiality 2. Integrity 3. Availability How Network Security Works Network Security Principles (CIA Triad) 1. Confidentiality: Confidentiality involves ensuring that sensitive information is accessed only by authorized individuals and is not disclosed to anyone unauthorized. How Network Security Works Network Security Principles (CIA Triad) 2. Integrity: Integrity means maintaining the accuracy and consistency of data over its entire lifecycle. This principle ensures that information is not altered in unauthorized ways. How Network Security Works Network Security Principles (CIA Triad) 3. Availability: Availability ensures that information and resources are available to authorized users when needed. This principle involves keeping systems running and accessible, despite errors or attacks. How Network Security Works Core Processes in Network Security 1. Authentication 2. Authorization 3. Auditing and Monitoring How Network Security Works Core Processes in Network Security 1. Authentication Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, device, or other entity in a network to ensure they are who they claim to be before granting access to network resources. Examples: Passwords, Two-Factor Authentication (2FA), Biometrics How Network Security Works Core Processes in Network Security 2. Authorization Authorization is the process of granting the authenticated user permission to access specific resources or perform specific actions within a network. Analogy: Think of it like having a key to a locked door within an office. Just because you can enter the office building (authentication) doesn't mean you have the key to every room (authorization). You are only allowed into spaces relevant to your work or role. How Network Security Works Core Processes in Network Security 3. Auditing and Monitoring Auditing: Involves keeping records of user activities to ensure compliance with security policies and to help in recovering lost transactions. Helps in detecting and responding to incidents by providing a log of user actions that can be reviewed after a security breach. Monitoring: Continuous observation of network activities to identify and respond to threats in real time. Crucial for early detection of potential security threats, allowing for immediate response to protect data and network integrity. How Network Security Works Defense Strategies in Network Security 1. Defense in Depth (Layered Security): Defense in Depth is a security strategy that employs multiple layers of defense to protect network resources, ensuring that if one layer fails, another will continue to provide protection. How Network Security Works Defense Strategies in Network Security How Network Security Works Defense Strategies in Network Security 2. Proactive Defense: Proactive defense involves anticipating and mitigating security threats before they can cause harm. Components: Vulnerability Management Threat Intelligence How Network Security Works Defense Strategies in Network Security 3. Incident Response Incident response is the methodology an organization uses to respond to and manage a cyber attack or breach, aiming to handle the situation in a way that limits damage and reduces recovery time and costs. Network Security What is Network Security? Advantages and Importance of Network Security Types of Network Security Key Tools of Network Security How Network Security Works Network Troubleshooting Methodologies IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 4 Network Troubleshooting Methodologies Systematic Troubleshooting OSI Model for Troubleshooting Troubleshooting Techniques Systematic Troubleshooting Systematic troubleshooting is a structured approach to efficiently identifying, diagnosing, and resolving network issues. It minimizes downtime and reduces the impact on business operations. Steps in Systematic Troubleshooting Problem Identification Recognize and define the issue based on symptoms reported by users Information Gathering Collect relevant data and logs to gain insights into the problem. Problem Isolation Narrow down the cause of the issue to a specific part of the network Problem Resolution Implement a solution to fix the identified issue. Verification Test the network to ensure the problem is resolved. Using the OSI Model for Troubleshooting Layer-by-Layer Analysis: The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model divides network communication into seven layers, each responsible for specific functions. Troubleshooting involves examining each layer to pinpoint where issues occur. Layer-by-Layer Analysis Physical Layer (Layer 1) This layer deals with physical connectivity issues such as faulty cables or damaged ports. Data Link Layer (Layer 2) This layer handles data transfer between devices on the same network segment. Issues can include MAC address conflicts or errors in Ethernet frames. Layer-by-Layer Analysis Network Layer (Layer 3) This layer manages the logical addressing and routing of data packets between different networks. Common issues include IP address conflicts or routing table errors. Transport Layer (Layer 4) This layer provides reliable data transfer services and error-checking mechanisms. Problems may involve port blocking or issues with TCP/UDP protocols. Layer-by-Layer Analysis Session Layer (Layer 5), Presentation Layer (Layer 6), and Application Layer (Layer 7) These layers manage communication sessions, data formatting, and application-specific functions. Issues can range from session timeouts to application crashes. Diagnostic Tools Utilize specific tools for each layer: Ping and Traceroute Basic connectivity tests for troubleshooting network reachability issues. Packet Sniffers (like Wireshark) Capture and analyze network traffic to diagnose complex issues such as protocol errors or unauthorized access attempts. Troubleshooting Techniques Divide and Conquer Segment the network to isolate the problem area. This approach simplifies troubleshooting by narrowing down potential causes. Troubleshooting Techniques Top-Down Approach Start troubleshooting from the application layer and move downward through the OSI layers. This approach is useful when issues are application-specific. Troubleshooting Techniques Bottom-Up Approach Begin troubleshooting from the physical layer upwards. Effective for diagnosing connectivity or hardware-related issues. Network Troubleshooting Methodologies Systematic Troubleshooting OSI Model for Troubleshooting Troubleshooting Techniques  Network Performance Optimization - Quality of Service (QoS) IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 5 Network Performance Optimization Quality of Service (QoS) Key Terms Review Quality of Service (QoS) Key Components of QoS Network Performance Optimization Key Terms Review: VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) Technology that allows telephone calls to be made over the internet instead of through traditional telephone lines. Latency The time delay from the moment data is sent to when it is received. Low latency is crucial for real-time applications like video calls. Packet Loss Occurs when data packets fail to reach their destination, which can lead to disruptions in communication and data transfer. Quality of Service (QoS) QoS is a set of technologies and practices used to manage and prioritize network traffic to ensure the performance of critical applications. Essential for networks that handle diverse types of data traffic, particularly where real-time data needs prioritization to function effectively, such as in VoIP or streaming video. Key Components of QoS Classification and Marking Queuing Policing and Shaping Congestion Management Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Classification and Marking The process of identifying and categorizing network traffic by examining the data packets. Enables the network to apply different QoS policies to different types of traffic, ensuring that critical applications receive higher priority. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Tools Used: DPI (Deep Packet Inspection) Looks deeply into the data passing through the network to figure out what it is. DSCP (Differentiated Services Code Point) A way to mark packets to show the kind of service they should get.  Tools Used Feature Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Definition A network packet filtering method that A field in the IP header that is used to examines the data and header of a classify packets into different priority packet as it passes through a checkpoint levels for quality of service (QoS). to identify, manage, or block specific data. Primary Inspects the content and details within Prioritizes packets to manage network Function data packets to ensure compliance, traffic flow and ensure quality service for security, or data management. important applications. Mechanism Analyzes both header and payload of Marks packets with a numerical value that packets, looking for specific signatures indicates their priority level, influencing or anomalies that match predefined how network devices handle these security or management rules. packets.  Tools Used Feature Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Typical Use Used for security purposes such as Used in traffic shaping and network quality of intrusion detection and prevention, content service (QoS) to prioritize essential traffic filtering, and network monitoring. such as VoIP, streaming media, and critical data applications. Impact on Traffic Can block or reroute traffic based on the Does not block traffic but organizes packet content found in packets, directly affecting handling priorities, ensuring that high-priority what data is allowed through a network. traffic gets bandwidth preference. Configuration High, as it requires detailed definitions of Moderate, involves setting priority levels but Complexity what data patterns to look for and how to less detailed inspection of packet content. respond to different types of data. Performance Can be resource-intensive, potentially Generally low impact on performance as it Impact slowing down traffic because each packet only involves checking header values and must be thoroughly inspected. does not inspect packet contents. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Queuing The method by which packets are held and organized at network devices before being forwarded. Prevents buffer overflow and manages the service order of packets, which is vital for maintaining the quality of service during high traffic periods. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Queuing FIFO (First-In, First-Out) A simple queuing algorithm where packets are processed in the order they arrive, with no priority differentiation. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Queuing PQ (Priority Queuing) A queuing method that processes packets based on priority levels, with higher priority packets processed before lower ones. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Queuing WFQ (Weighted Fair Queuing) An intelligent queuing method that assigns bandwidth to packets based on weights, ensuring a fair distribution of resources.  Queuing Feature FIFO (First-In, First-Out) PQ (Priority Queuing) WFQ (Weighted Fair Queuing) Definition A simple queuing A queuing method that An intelligent queuing method algorithm where packets processes packets based that assigns bandwidth to are processed in the order on priority levels, with packets based on weights, they arrive, with no priority higher priority packets ensuring a fair distribution of differentiation. processed before lower resources. ones. Mechanism Packets are queued and Packets are classified into Packets are classified and processed sequentially as different priority classes; assigned weights; packets they arrive at the queue. within each class, they from flows with higher weights First packet in is the first are treated in FIFO order. are given more bandwidth, but packet out. all flows are guaranteed some bandwidth.  Queuing Feature FIFO (First-In, First-Out) PQ (Priority Queuing) WFQ (Weighted Fair Queuing) Advantages Simple to implement and Ensures that critical packets Provides fairness among flows, understand. No processing (like real-time traffic) are preventing any single flow from delay added by processed quickly, reducing dominating the bandwidth; good prioritization. latency for important data. for mixed traffic environments. Disadvantages No prioritization, which can Can lead to starvation of More complex to implement and lead to poor performance for lower priority traffic if requires more processing power time-sensitive data if stuck high-priority traffic is to calculate and maintain behind large or numerous constant. weights. packets. Typical Use Suitable for small or Ideal for networks where Best used in environments uncomplicated networks priority levels are clear and where bandwidth needs to be where traffic patterns are maintaining the quality of allocated among many users or predictable and not highly service for high-priority applications fairly, such as large variable. traffic is critical. enterprise networks. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Policing A method of controlling the rate of network traffic by reducing the flow of packets that exceed a specified rate limit. Prevents certain traffic from consuming too much bandwidth, ensuring availability for other critical services. Shaping Smooths out traffic spikes by delaying packets to fit them into a desired traffic profile. Helps maintain consistent traffic flow and reduces congestion. Policing Feature Policing Shaping Definition A method of controlling the rate of network A technique used to regulate network traffic by enforcing a limit on the bandwidth traffic by delaying packets to conform to that certain types of traffic can use. If traffic a specified traffic profile, effectively exceeds this limit, it is either dropped or smoothing out bursts of traffic. marked down for lower priority. Importance Policing is crucial for preventing bandwidth Shaping is important for maintaining a overuse by limiting high-volume traffic, consistent flow of traffic, reducing peaks which ensures that sufficient bandwidth is of data that can cause congestion and available for other critical services and degrade overall network performance. applications. Typical Usage Used in situations where it is critical to Often used in broadband networks to strictly enforce bandwidth limits for certain manage data flow from the network to types of traffic, such as limiting the user, ensuring that all users get a fair non-essential applications during peak share of bandwidth and preventing any usage times to preserve bandwidth for single user from overwhelming the critical services. network. Policing Feature Policing Shaping Impact on Can result in dropped packets if Does not drop packets but Traffic the traffic exceeds predefined delays them, managing traffic bandwidth limits, which may be flow more gently than policing acceptable for non-critical and thus preserving data applications but not for essential integrity while controlling services. bandwidth usage. Configuration policing-rate 100 mbps - Any traffic-shape rate 100 mbps - Example traffic exceeding 100 Mbps is Traffic is allowed to burst to either dropped or marked as higher speeds but averaged out lower priority. to 100 Mbps to prevent long-term congestion. Key Components Quality of Service (QoS) Congestion Management Techniques: Tail Drop Drops packets at the tail end of the queue when no more space is available, simple but can lead to TCP synchronization issues. WRED (Weighted Random Early Detection) Proactively manages congestion by beginning to drop packets before the transmission buffer becomes full, based on the priority of the packet.  Congestion Management Feature Tail Drop WRED (Weighted Random Early Detection) Definition A congestion management An intelligent congestion avoidance technique where packets are technique that starts dropping packets before dropped from the tail end of the the queue becomes full, based on their queue when no more space is priority. available. Function Drops the newest arriving packets Drops packets selectively based on their that find the queue full, without priority level and the current size of the discrimination between types of queue, aiming to prevent the queue from traffic. becoming full. Effects Simple and straightforward, but can Helps to smooth out potential bursts of traffic cause TCP synchronization issues by reducing the flow gradually before the as all packets are treated equally, point of congestion, thus minimizing the need leading to potential for retransmission. retransmissions.  Congestion Management Feature Tail Drop WRED (Weighted Random Early Detection) Typical Usage Used in scenarios where a basic, Suited for larger or more complex networks low-overhead method is sufficient where different types of traffic need to be to handle congestion, such as in treated according to their importance and smaller or less complex networks. where minimizing retransmissions is crucial. Advantages Easy to implement with minimal Reduces the likelihood of queue overflow processing requirements. and provides fair bandwidth distribution among different traffic classes. Disadvantages Can lead to global TCP More complex to configure as it requires synchronization, where multiple setting different thresholds and weights for TCP flows reduce their various traffic types. transmission rates at once, thus reducing overall network throughput. Network Performance Optimization Quality of Service (QoS) Key Terms Review Quality of Service (QoS) Key Components of QoS Security Protocols IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 6 Security Protocols SSL - Secure Sockets Layer TLS - Transport Layer Security IPSec - Internet Protocol Security SSL - Secure Sockets Layer SSL is a security protocol developed to provide secure communication over the Internet by encrypting the data transmitted between two systems. History: Originally developed by Netscape in 1995, SSL has undergone several revisions to enhance security, eventually evolving into TLS (Transport Layer Security). How SSL Works Handshake Protocol: Purpose: Establishes a secure connection between a client and a server. Process: Involves key exchange and authentication to ensure that both parties are legitimate and can communicate securely. Key Exchange: Typically uses asymmetric encryption to establish a shared secret without actually sending it over the network. Authentication: Usually involves certificates to verify the server’s (and optionally the client’s) identity. How SSL Works Record Protocol: Function: Ensures that the data exchanged through an SSL connection is encrypted and reliable. Mechanism: Encrypts the data using symmetric encryption based on the keys generated during the handshake. SSL is commonly used Web Browsing Secure Websites: Websites that require users to log in or enter personal information use SSL to secure these interactions. When you visit a website whose URL starts with "https://" rather than "http://", it means SSL is protecting your connection. The 's' stands for 'secure'. Example Sites: Banking websites, online retailers, and any services requiring user registration or data input, like Amazon, eBay, and all major banks. SSL is commonly used Email Communications Email Encryption: Email services use SSL to encrypt the connection between email clients and their servers. This prevents unauthorized access to email messages while they are in transit. Email Providers Using SSL: Gmail, Yahoo Mail, and Microsoft Outlook all use SSL to secure users' emails from eavesdropping. SSL is commonly used File Transfers FTP Over SSL (FTPS): While traditional FTP does not encrypt its traffic, FTPS adds a layer of security by using SSL to encrypt commands and data. This ensures secure file transfers between a client and server. Example Usage: Uploading files to a web server, transferring sensitive data between internal networks in corporate environments. SSL is commonly used Online Transactions E-Commerce: SSL certificates are crucial for online stores and any businesses that handle credit card transactions, personal information, or login credentials. SSL encryption protects this data against cyber theft. Example Platforms: Shopify, WooCommerce, and other e-commerce platforms integrate SSL to secure all transactions. SSL is commonly used Cloud Services Data Encryption: Cloud-based applications use SSL to secure data in transit. Whether it's accessing Google Docs or streaming content on Netflix, SSL helps to ensure that data exchanged with the cloud is not intercepted. Example Services: Google Apps, Microsoft Office 365, Dropbox, and other cloud storage or SaaS providers. SSL is commonly used VPN Connections Secure Remote Access: VPNs use SSL to create secure "tunnels" through which remote employees can access their company networks safely over the Internet. Example Applications: SSL VPNs are offered by Cisco, SonicWall, and Fortinet for secure remote access to corporate networks. SSL is commonly used VoIP Communications Securing Voice Calls: VoIP services use SSL to encrypt voice communication, protecting calls from interception and eavesdropping. Example Providers: Skype, WhatsApp, and other VoIP platforms often employ SSL/TLS to secure call setup and signaling. TLS - Transport Layer Security TLS (Transport Layer Security) is an updated, more secure version of SSL (Secure Sockets Layer). It's extensively used across the internet to protect the privacy and integrity of exchanged data and communications. Improvements over SSL Enhancements: TLS includes stronger encryption algorithms and more robust mechanisms to prevent attacks such as cipher block chaining (CBC) attacks and padding oracle attacks. Protocol Support: Provides better support for modern cryptographic algorithms and flexible configurations. Improvements over SSL Key Components: TLS Handshake: Enhanced Security: Utilizes more secure algorithms for encryption and hashing. Flexible Architecture: Allows negotiation of which encryption method and cryptographic keys to use without prior arrangement. TLS Record Layer: Improved Features: Includes mechanisms for integrity check and encryption, ensuring that the communication is not only secure but also reliable.  Improvements over SSL Aspect SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) TLS (Transport Layer Security) Security Strength Uses older encryption algorithms; some Uses stronger, more modern encryption algorithms versions are now deprecated and considered and is consistently updated to enhance security. insecure. Protocol Versions Older protocol with versions like SSL 2.0 and Includes versions from TLS 1.0 to TLS 1.3, with SSL 3.0, which are vulnerable to several types each subsequent version improving on the security of cryptographic attacks. and efficiency of the previous. TLS 1.3 significantly increases security and performance. Handshake Process Handshake is less efficient and secure, Streamlined handshake process in TLS 1.3, which susceptible to vulnerabilities like cipher block reduces the number of round trips needed to chaining attacks. establish a secure connection, enhancing both security and connection speed. Certificate Less flexible in certificate verification, which Provides robust mechanisms for certificate Verification can expose communications to certain verification, supporting a wide range of vulnerabilities. cryptographic algorithms and flexible configurations. Improvements over SSL Aspect SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) TLS (Transport Layer Security) Industry Support Largely phased out due to known security Widely adopted as the standard protocol for and Adoption flaws. No longer supported by most modern secure web communications. Supported by all browsers and web servers. modern browsers and is mandatory for many compliance standards. Performance and Generally slower due to less efficient Offers improvements in performance, especially Efficiency handshake and encryption processes. noticeable in TLS 1.3, due to a more efficient handshake process and better use of modern CPUs. Common Usage Historically used for web browsing, emails, Used across all platforms that require secure Examples and file transfers but now replaced by TLS communications, including web browsing, in these applications due to security emails, online transactions, cloud services, and concerns. more. IPSec - Internet Protocol Security IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) is a suite of protocols designed to secure Internet communications by authenticating and encrypting each IP packet of a data stream. It is used extensively to provide secure, encrypted communications between two or more endpoints over potentially unsecured networks, such as the Internet. How IPSec Works Transport Mode: Function: Encrypts only the payload of the IP packet, leaving the header unencrypted. Use Case: Typically used for end-to-end communication between a client and a server. Tunnel Mode: Function: Encrypts both the payload and the headers of the IP packet. Use Case: Commonly used for VPNs to secure the entire packet for it to be sent over an untrusted network. Key Operations Authentication Headers (AH): Provides authentication and integrity but does not encrypt data. Encapsulating Security Payloads (ESP): Provides confidentiality, integrity, and authentication by encrypting the packet data. Examples where IPSec is commonly utilized VPN Connections Corporate VPNs: Many organizations use IPSec to secure VPNs that connect remote employees to corporate networks. This ensures that all data transmitted between remote workers and the company's internal network is encrypted and secure from eavesdropping or interception. Example: A company might configure IPSec VPNs to allow employees to access sensitive financial systems and internal documents securely from outside the office. Examples where IPSec is commonly utilized Site-to-Site VPN Branch Office Connectivity: IPSec is often used to connect different branches of a company via the internet securely. It allows network traffic to travel securely between sites without the need for expensive leased lines. Example: A retail chain could use an IPSec VPN to securely connect the point-of-sale systems in its various stores back to its main inventory database located at the headquarters. Examples where IPSec is commonly utilized Secure File Transfer Data Encryption: For industries that require secure file transfer capabilities, such as healthcare or finance, IPSec provides a reliable way to encrypt file transfers between systems across unsecured networks like the internet. Example: A financial institution uses IPSec to ensure that transactions and customer data exchanged with external audit systems are secure and private. Examples where IPSec is commonly utilized Government and Military Communications Defense Communications: Given its strong security features, IPSec is extensively used in military and government applications to secure classified communications. Example: Government agencies use IPSec to protect sensitive diplomatic communications between embassies across the globe. Examples where IPSec is commonly utilized Mobile Device Security Mobile VPNs: IPSec is also used to secure mobile VPN connections, providing reliable security for mobile devices that need to access corporate resources securely. Example: Employees use IPSec VPN on their smartphones and tablets to access corporate emails and applications securely while traveling. Security Protocols SSL - Secure Sockets Layer TLS - Transport Layer Security IPSec - Internet Protocol Security Wireless Networking Standards and Technology - IEEE 802.11 Standards IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 7.1 Wireless Networking Standards and Technology IEEE 802.11 Standards ○ WLAN Standards ○ Key Wireless Technologies ○ IEEE 802.11 Standards ○ Applications and Limitations WPA3 Security WLAN Standards Brief History: Early Beginnings: The concept of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) emerged in the late 1980s as a solution to connect devices without the need for physical cabling. Initially, these systems were proprietary and lacked standardization, leading to compatibility issues. Standardization Effort: The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formed a committee in 1990 to create a standard that would ensure interoperability among different manufacturers’ devices. This led to the introduction of the first IEEE 802.11 standard in 1997. Role of IEEE 802.11 Standards Interoperability Compatibility Innovation and Growth Key Wireless Technologies MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) MU-MIMO (Multi-User Multiple Input Multiple Output) OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) MIMO technology involves using multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance. It enhances the capacity and reliability of the wireless connection without requiring additional bandwidth or increased transmit power. MU-MIMO (Multi-User Multiple Input Multiple Output) An extension of the basic MIMO technology, MU-MIMO allows a single wireless router or access point to communicate with multiple devices simultaneously, rather than sequentially. OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) OFDMA is a multi-user version of the popular Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation technology. OFDMA subdivides a communication channel into multiple narrowband channels at different frequencies to enhance spectral efficiency, reduce interference, and increase throughput.  Technology Definition How It Works MIMO (Multiple MIMO uses multiple antennas at By utilizing spatial multiplexing, MIMO Input Multiple both the transmitter and receiver to sends and receives multiple data Output) improve communication signals simultaneously, increasing performance. data rate and range. MU-MIMO An advancement of MIMO that Divides the bandwidth into separate (Multi-User allows a wireless router to streams for multiple users, reducing Multiple Input communicate with multiple devices wait times and enhancing network Multiple Output) simultaneously. efficiency for multiple device environments. OFDMA A version of OFDM designed for Assigns subsets of subcarriers to (Orthogonal multiple users, improving spectral different users, allowing multiple Frequency efficiency and throughput by low-data-rate transmissions Division Multiple subdividing channels into simultaneously, which is ideal for Access) narrowband frequencies. dense user environments. IEEE 802.11 Wireless Standards - Functions and Applications 1. IEEE 802.11a A wireless networking standard that operates in the 5 GHz band and provides a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps. Example: Suitable for office settings where higher speed and lower interference from other devices are needed. 2. IEEE 802.11b Operates at 2.4 GHz frequency, offering up to 11 Mbps. It was notable for its broad compatibility and lower cost. Example: Commonly used in residential internet setups during the early 2000s. IEEE 802.11 Wireless Standards - Functions and Applications 3. IEEE 802.11g Combines the benefits of 802.11a and 802.11b, operating at 2.4 GHz with a maximum throughput of 54 Mbps. Example: Used in both homes and small businesses to provide faster internet speeds without the need for new hardware compatible with 5 GHz frequencies. 4. IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4) Introduces MIMO technology and operates on both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, with speeds up to 600 Mbps. Example: Ideal for streaming high-definition video or supporting a high number of devices in a home or business network. IEEE 802.11 Wireless Standards - Functions and Applications 5. IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5) Operates only in the 5 GHz band and supports higher data rates over 1 Gbps through wider channels and more spatial streams. Example: Used in larger environments like offices and educational institutions to support high-speed connections and heavy data usage. 6. IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) Enhances efficiency in crowded environments using new technologies like OFDMA and MU-MIMO, offering improved throughput and capacity. Example: Suitable for smart homes, IoT environments, and high-density areas like stadiums or urban centers where many devices connect simultaneously.  Standard Frequency Band Max Data Rate Definition Typical Use Case IEEE 802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps Operates in the 5 GHz band and Used in offices for offers higher speeds with reduced high-speed connections with interference. less interference. IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps Operates at 2.4 GHz, known for Ideal for residential internet broad compatibility and lower setups from the early 2000s. cost. IEEE 802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps Combines the benefits of 802.11a Common in homes and and b, offering higher speeds at small businesses for faster the more common 2.4 GHz internet access. frequency. IEEE 802.11n 2.4/5 GHz 600 Mbps Introduces MIMO technology, Suitable for streaming HD improving speed and range on video and supporting both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. multiple devices. IEEE 802.11ac 5 GHz Over 1 Gbps Provides higher data rates Used in larger settings like through wider channels and more offices and schools for spatial streams in the 5 GHz heavy data usage. band. IEEE 802.11ax 2.4/5 GHz Higher than 1 Enhances efficiency in crowded Ideal for smart homes, IoT Gbps environments with technologies devices, and crowded areas like OFDMA and MU-MIMO. like stadiums. Limitations and Challenges Standard Frequency Band Applications Limitations 802.11b/g/n 2.4 GHz Suitable for home and small Prone to interference due to (Wi-Fi 4) office environments, ideal for congestion in the 2.4 GHz band, basic internet activities like leading to potential slower speeds and browsing and streaming. disconnections. 802.11a 5 GHz Originally used in business Limited by shorter range and poor wall environments to reduce penetration, less commonly used now. interference in crowded settings. 802.11ac 5 GHz Ideal for large businesses and Requires modern hardware for (Wi-Fi 5) academic institutions needing optimal performance, increasing setup high-speed connections for costs. multiple devices. 802.11ax 2.4/5 GHz Optimized for high-density High initial hardware costs and may (Wi-Fi 6) environments like stadiums or require users to upgrade existing IoT setups, managing many devices to fully benefit. devices efficiently. Devices by IEEE 802.11 Standard and Frequency Band Standard Frequency Band Typical Devices 802.11b/g/n 2.4 GHz Older laptops and desktops, budget smartphones, home routers, (Wi-Fi 4) IoT devices like smart thermostats and security cameras. 802.11a 5 GHz Older enterprise-grade equipment, often replaced or supplemented by newer ac/ax standards in modern setups. 802.11ac 5 GHz Modern smartphones, tablets, laptops, high-performance routers, (Wi-Fi 5) smart TVs, and streaming devices that require high bandwidth for activities like streaming HD/4K video. 802.11ax 2.4/5 GHz Latest smartphones, high-end laptops, next-generation routers, (Wi-Fi 6) and devices designed for dense environments and efficiency, such as enterprise-grade hardware in offices or campuses. Wireless Networking Standards and Technology IEEE 802.11 Standards ○ WLAN Standards ○ Key Wireless Technologies ○ IEEE 802.11 Standards ○ Applications and Limitations WPA3 Security Wireless Networking Standards and Technology - WPA3 Security IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 7.2 Wireless Networking Standards and Technology IEEE 802.11 Standards WPA3 Security ○ WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) ○ Wireless Security Timeline ○ WPA3 Features WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) WPA was developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks. Introduced in 2003, it was designed to improve upon the security features of WEP without requiring new hardware. WPA provides stronger encryption and user authentication than WEP. Wireless Security Timeline WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access ) WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2) WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 3)  Standard Introduction Year Key Security Features Vulnerabilities WEP (Wired Late 1990s Basic encryption methods Easily compromised due Equivalent Privacy) to weak encryption WPA (Wi-Fi 2003 Uses TKIP (Temporal Key Still vulnerable to certain Protected Access) Integrity Protocol) attacks despite improvements over WEP WPA2 (Wi-Fi 2004 Implements AES (Advanced Known vulnerabilities Protected Access Encryption Standard) exploited in attacks like 2) KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) WPA3 (Wi-Fi 2018 Enhances security, addresses Designed to counteract Protected Access vulnerabilities of WPA2, uses modern cyber threats, no 3) 192-bit encryption major vulnerabilities reported yet WPA3 Features Enhanced Encryption Improved Authentication Forward Secrecy  Enhanced Encryption Feature 128-bit Encryption 192-bit Encryption Key Combinations 2^128 possible combinations 2^192 possible combinations Security Level Considered secure against brute Provides significantly higher force attacks with current security, out of reach for technology. current and foreseeable future technology, including early quantum computers. Computational Power Feasible with future Requires exponentially to Crack advancements in computing, more computational power, including potential quantum making it impractical to computing capabilities. crack with existing or near-future technology. Enhanced Encryption Feature 128-bit Encryption 192-bit Encryption Standard Compliance Meets commercial security Meets the Commercial National standards for protecting general Security Algorithm (CNSA) Suite business and personal data. standards, designed for top secret and highly sensitive information. Typical Use Cases Suitable for consumer and Ideal for government, military, and corporate environments where other high-security environments extremely high-level security is not where protection of highly the primary concern. sensitive data is critical. Performance Impact Minimal impact on system May impact system performance resources, offering a good due to the increased complexity, balance between security and requiring more robust hardware performance. for efficient management. Improved Authentication SAE (Simultaneous Authentication of Equals): Replaces WPA2’s PSK (Pre-shared Key) with a more secure handshake mechanism. WPA3 introduces an enhanced authentication method called Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE), which significantly improves upon the Pre-shared Key (PSK) system used in WPA2. This upgrade addresses inherent weaknesses in the older system that made it susceptible to security breaches. SAE Mechanism: Unlike the PSK used in WPA2, which involves a shared key that could be exposed or guessed, SAE employs a more robust, handshake-based process. This process uses a cryptographic exchange that ensures both parties (the Wi-Fi client and the access point) prove to each other that they know the password without actually exchanging the password itself. How It Works: SAE uses a method called "Dragonfly Key Exchange," a form of elliptic curve cryptography, to create a secure channel. This method protects against passive and active attacks, including those where an attacker attempts to masquerade as a legitimate user or network. Forward Secrecy Ensures that session keys cannot be used to decrypt past sessions, even if a future session key is compromised. Forward secrecy is a critical security feature in cryptographic protocols, which is fully implemented in the WPA3 standard for Wi-Fi security. It is designed to protect past communication sessions from future compromises, an essential aspect as cyber threats continue to evolve. Forward Secrecy Mechanism: Forward secrecy ensures that each session between a Wi-Fi client and an access point uses a unique set of encryption keys. These keys are not derived from a static or reused master key but are instead generated dynamically for each session. Key Exchange: The generation of these keys typically involves complex key agreement protocols, such as those based on Diffie-Hellman or elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman exchanges, which allow the keys to be established securely even over a public channel without revealing the keys themselves. Wireless Networking Standards and Technology IEEE 802.11 Standards WPA3 Security ○ WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) ○ Wireless Security Timeline ○ WPA3 Features Emerging Network Technologies IT 135 - Networking 2 - Lesson 8 Emerging Network Technologies Key Aspects Examples of Emerging Network Technologies ○ Software Defined Networking (SDN) ○ Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) ○ Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity ○ 5G Networks ○ Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) ○ Quantum Networking Emerging Network Technologies Emerging network technologies refer to the latest advancements and innovations in networking that aim to improve the efficiency, security, scalability, and manageability of communication networks. Key Aspects of Emerging Network Technologies Innovation in Network Management and Operation Enhanced Flexibility and Scalability Increased Network Functionality Cost Efficiency Support for Diverse Applications Examples of Emerging Network Technologies Software Defined Networking (SDN) Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity 5G Networks Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) Quantum Networking Software Defined Networking (SDN) SDN is a transformative networking architecture that separates the network's control logic (control plane) from the underlying routers and switches that forward traffic (data plane), allowing for more centralized and flexible network management. Software Defined Networking (SDN) Examples Data Center Network Management Google B4: Google uses SDN for its internal data center networks, notably with its B4 SDN that manages inter-data center traffic. This deployment allows Google to manage complex network behaviors to optimize traffic flow across their massive global infrastructure. Network Traffic Control AT&T Domain 2.0 Initiative: AT&T has implemented SDN across its networks to improve network management and reduce operating costs. This initiative helps AT&T to dynamically adjust and optimize network routing and manage services more efficiently. Cloud Networking Microsoft Azure: Azure uses SDN to provide virtual networking capabilities to its cloud services. This enables features such as Azure Virtual Network, allowing customers to securely link Azure virtual machines to one another and to on-premises data centers. Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) NFV decouples network functions such as routing, firewalling, and load balancing from dedicated hardware, instead running them as software on virtualized hardware. Key Features: Hardware Independence: Allows network services to be hosted on generic hardware, reducing dependency on proprietary hardware. Scalability and Flexibility: Makes it easier to scale up or down network services without the need for additional physical hardware, adapting quickly to network demand. Reduced Costs: Lowers both capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) by minimizing the need for specialized hardware and reducing power and space requirements. Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) Examples Virtualized Network Functions (VNF) Verizon Virtual Network Services: Verizon offers NFV-based services that allow businesses to deploy and manage network services such as security, WAN optimization, and SD-WAN on a universal customer premises equipment (uCPE). This approach reduces the need for dedicated network hardware. Service Providers Orange: This telecommunications operator uses NFV to virtualize its mobile gateway, allowing it to scale operations quickly and efficiently in response to customer demand without the need for additional physical infrastructure. Enterprise NFV Cisco’s Enterprise NFV: Provides enterprise customers with NFV solutions to virtualize their network services (routing, firewall, WAN optimization) on supported hardware platforms, simplifying branch office deployments and management. Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity IoT refers to the extension of internet connectivity into physical devices and everyday objects, allowing them to communicate and interact with others over the internet, and they can be remotely monitored and controlled. Key Features: Interconnectivity: Enables devices to collect and exchange data automatically, fostering integration between the physical world and computer-based systems. Automation and Control: Simplifies tasks and enhances communication within the smart environments, be it homes, cities, or industries. Efficiency Improvements: Boosts the efficiency of energy use, logistics, and consumption in various environments. Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity Examples Smart Homes Amazon Echo and Smart Home Devices: Amazon’s Echo uses IoT connectivity to control smart devices within homes. It can connect with lights, thermostats, and security systems to provide users with a seamless home automation experience. Industrial IoT (IIoT) GE Predix: GE’s Predix platform provides IoT connectivity for industrial environments, enabling machinery and equipment to collect and analyze data. This helps in predictive maintenance and efficiency optimizations across various industries. Smart Cities Barcelona Smart City: Barcelona has implemented various IoT initiatives, including smart lighting and waste management systems that use IoT connectivity to optimize energy usage and improve city services. 5G Networks 5G is the fifth generation of mobile network technology, succeeding 4G. It offers significantly faster data speeds, reduced latency, and more reliable connectivity compared to its predecessors. Key Features: High Speed: Enables much faster data download and upload speeds, potentially up to 10 gigabits per second. Low Latency: Reduces the communication delay to as low as 1 millisecond, enhancing performance for real-time applications. Massive Connectivity: Supports a vast number of connected devices per square kilometer, suitable for urban environments and IoT deployments. 5G Networks Applications Autonomous Vehicles: Utilize 5G for real-time data transmission, essential for navigation and safety. Smart Cities: Leverage 5G to connect thousands of sensors and devices for traffic management, security, and environmental monitoring. Telemedicine: Employs 5G's low latency and high bandwidth for remote diagnostics and surgical procedures, making healthcare more accessible. Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) MEC is a network architecture concept that brings cloud computing capabilities and an IT service environment to the edge of the network, closer to the user or data source. Key Features: Low Latency: Reduces the delay by processing data near the source rather than relying on distant servers. Improved Efficiency: Saves bandwidth and speeds up processing by handling data locally. Location Awareness: Facilitates the delivery of contextual services based on the user’s location. Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) Applications Augmented Reality: Enhances AR applications by processing complex tasks like image recognition at the network edge to reduce latency. Content Delivery: Optimizes video streaming and gaming with edge servers that cache content close to users, minimizing buffering. Industrial IoT: Supports IoT devices in manufacturing for real-time analytics and decision-making, improving operational efficiency. Quantum Networking Quantum networking involves using quantum signals to transmit information more securely than traditional networks. It leverages principles of quantum mechanics, such as quantum entanglement and superposition, to achieve communication that cannot be intercepted without detection. Key Features: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): Uses quantum mechanics to securely distribute encryption keys. Unhackable Networks: Offers a level of security that is fundamentally protected by the laws of physics, making it virtually impossible to intercept or tamper with. Entanglement: Enables instant transfer of the state between quantum bits, even over long distances. Quantum Networking Applications Secure Communications: Governments and financial institutions can use quantum networks for transmitting sensitive information securely. Quantum Internet: Researchers are working on developing a quantum internet that will radically change how data is transmitted across the globe. Scientific Research: Quantum networks enhance secure sharing of data among research institutions, enabling collaboration on quantum computing research. Emerging Network Technologies Key Aspects Examples of Emerging Network Technologies ○ Software Defined Networking (SDN) ○ Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) ○ Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity ○ 5G Networks ○ Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) ○ Quantum Networking