MSBSHSE Class 11 History Textbook PDF - Maharashtra State

B{Vhmg B. 11 dr B{Vhmg B. 11 dr The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-2020....

B{Vhmg B. 11 dr B{Vhmg B. 11 dr The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-2020. HISTORY Standard Eleven Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune. The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP on a Smartphone by using Q. R. Code given on title page of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning material of all lessons will be also available through the Q. R. Code given on the title page. First Edition : 2019 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Reprint : October 2020 Research, Pune - 411 004. The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004. History Subject Committee Authors Dr. Sadanand More, Chairman Dr. Shubhangana Atre Dr. Shubhangana Atre, Member Dr. Priya Gohad Dr. Somnath Rode, Member Translation Dr. Satish Chapale, Member Dr. Shubhangana Atre Dr. Priya Gohad, Member Dr. Priya Gohad Dr. Nalini Waghmare, Member Dr. Prashant Deshmukh, Member Cover and Illustrations Smt. Varsha Sarode, Member-Secretary Shri. Devadatta Balkawade Cartographer History Study Group Shri. Ravikiran Jadhav Dr. Shivani Limaye Shri. Vaijnath Kale Dr. Dhananjay Choudhari Typesetting : DTP Section, Prof. Shridhar Ghundare Balbharati, Pune Shri. Sameer Mankar Paper : 70 GSM Creamwove Dr. Dhanaji Masal Print Order : N/PB/2021-22/Qty.- 7,000 Shri. Krishna Deshmukh Printer : M/s. Kisan Printing Industries, Beed Dr. Siddhartha Jadhav Prof. Anurath Kale Coordination Dr. Mushir Shaikh Smt. Varsha Sarode Shri. Sandip Doiphode Assistant Special Officer, History and Civics Shri. Balasaheb Chavare Dr. Sachin Dengale Production Smt. Shivkanya Kaderkar Sachchitanand Aphale Prof. Nagesh Kadam Chief Production Officer Dr. Ravsaheb Shelke Prabhakar Parab, Production Officer Shri. Mohan Shete Shashank Kanikdale, Prof. Ashwini Bedge Asst. Production Officer Prof. Sushama Nangude Shri. Balkrishna Chopade Publisher Invitees Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller Dr. Ganesh Raut Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau, Shri. Mogal Jadhav Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025. NATIONAL ANTHEM  Preface Friends, From this year, as students of the XIth Standard, you will be studying ‘History’, not jointly with ‘Political Science’ but as a separate subject. Starting from the times before ‘Common Era’ till the ‘Mediaeval Period’, the continuous social and cultural history of India, with special reference to Maharashtra, is unfolded in this textbook. We are glad to present this book to you. The chain of continuous actions-reactions in the history of human progress, from the first stone tools created by Homo habilis to modern robotics and artificial intelligence, is instrumental in shaping the social-cultural history. If we understand this chain of actions-reactions in its entirety, then studying history leads to a bridge that connects our present to our past. With it studying history becomes pleasant, a source of gaining knowledge and a medium of creating knowledge. We studied history of several stages of human journey from the Stone Age to the Modern Era. It included several events that happened in the historical time span. We completed this study as a continuous series from the Vth Standard to the Xth Standard. Events happening in the historical time are just the markers of major shifts happening at various stages of human history. It is necessary to pay attention to various social, cultural, political, technological processes, which are responsible for creating the shifts. These processes are vital in the shaping of history. If the students are competent to understand the unending chain of processes, then their capability of constructing knowledge will also be nourished. This textbook is written with this thought in mind. The material made available with QR code, the informative boxes, coloured illustrations, maps and various suggestions for activities in this textbook will help you in your studies. You will be able to gather additional information with the help of various web links provided in the lessons. This textbook will help you guide you in the right direction to reach your future goal. We wish you the best in your journey toward higher education. (Dr. Sunil Magar) Pune Director Maharashtra State Bureau of Date : 20 June 2019 Textbook Production and Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Curriculum Research, Pune  - For the Teachers - At this stage the students of Std. XI have crossed the threshold of school life. They are now at the threshold of a new world. It’s a transitional phase for them. They need to review all that they have already learnt and to get ready to dive deeper in their chosen subjects, to help them in chalking out their career. What they learn in Std. XI is their first step toward this goal. Keeping this in view, the history textbook of Std. XI has been designed to help the students to revise and review all that they learnt about history starting from Std. VI. This would be like revisiting the familiar lanes of history of the ancient and medieval periods and to brace up to understand their subtleties and splendours; to get new insights to enjoy history as an academic subject. Through this textbook it would be achieved as a matter of natural course, as the students at this stage are already competent to analyse and synthesise information and go deeper. At the cognitive level students of Std. XI are mature enough to peep into the psychological processes at collective level, which form the base of socio-political processes. Thus, this textbook will gently lead them into independent thinking and help them in holistic comprehension of these processes. It would be useful for them in all walks of life and in their respective fields of future specialisation. The ability to read map and to place the historical information in its geographic context is crucial for a history student. Hence, historical maps are incorporated in this textbook, wherever necessary. In order to enable the students to supplement the information in these maps, appropriate weblinks have been also provided. As it will become clear from the contents of this textbook, it encompasses an enormous time-span of about 10000 years. It opens with the beginning of cultivation in various regions of the Indian subcontinent around 8000-7000 B.C.E. and continues till the medieval period. Each lesson in this textbook forms a marker of a broader step of socio-cultural progression in history. In other words, the emphasis is more on the conceptual and processual continuation while planning the lessons, rather than sequential arrangement of historical events. The first four lessons cover a span of more than 9000 years of proto-history, from about 10000 B.C.E. to 700 B.C.E. Next five lessons from no. 5 to 9 take us through the ancient period of Indian history. Lesson 10 and 11 deal with the transitional and hence an overlapping period between the ancient and medieval period of history. Lesson 12 and 13 highlight the adventurous history of the ancient Indians, when the Indian culture spread far and wide in the world, over the span of more than 4500 years. The last three lessons focus on the mediaeval times. The historical context of Maharashtra as a geographic region is also the prime focus of this textbook. The textbook strives for a new and more objective outlook of history to emerge as a natural outcome. In order to achieve it, additional boxes of information regarding the latest research in the field and supplementary information is provided for making the learning process more interesting and self-motivated. Even the teachers may find the information helpful and interesting. We are glad to give this book in your hands with a belief that it will be appreciated by you. (F)  Competency Statement Unit Competency Unit 1: Explains the meaning of the term ‘Proto-history’. India in the proto-historic Explains the transition from nomadic to settled life in proto-historic period. period (with special Explains the processes like beginning of cultivation, stages in the development reference to Maharashtra) of agricultural production and consequent changes in the life style of proto- historic people. Explains the establishment of permanent settlements and their organisation. Explains the process of urbanisation. Explains the interdependence between development of trade and urban centres. Finds correlation between the interdependence of decline in trade and decline of urban centres. Unit 2: Explains the relationship between written sources and historical period. India before 6th Cent. Critically analyses the early political institutions and social institutions in B.C.E. (with special ancient India. reference to Maharashtra) Comprehends the transitional processes in the political and social, technological, economic, religious fields during the period of second urbanisation. Explains about the contacts established by the early Indians with distant regions with the help of maps. Explains the rise of the first Empire of India and its background. Describes India’s relations with other countries by using a map. Unit 3: Explains the characteristics of the empires that emerged in the post-Mauryan India from 6th Cent. Period and changes in various fields during the Mauryan Period. B.C.E. to 13th Cent. C.E. Explains the nature of changes. (with special reference to Critically reviews various dynasties in South India in detail and their extent. Maharashtra) Critically reviews the fact that Indians had established strong trade relations with Rome during this period. Develops sense of pride in the history of ancient India as within a span of few centuries Indian trade had expanded far and wide reaching Southeast Asia and with the expansion of trade the Indian culture also spread in the distant regions. Unit 4: Explains the political environment in mediaeval India. India from 13th Cent. C.E. Explains the advent of Arabs. to 19th Cent. C.E. Explains political conflict between Allauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Deogiri. (with special reference to Explains the progress in trade and commerce. Maharashtra) Traces trade routes in ancient India on Map. Shows places of cultural impact of India on map. Explains the process of Urbanisation in the Mediaeval Period. Describes the information about the developments in the field of art, architecture, literature, etc. Analyses the causal factors that led to the establishment of Mughal rule in India. Explains the land revenue systems of this period. Analyses the factors leading to establishment of ‘Swarajya’ by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Understands the political and administrative systems in ‘Swarajya’. Describes ‘Peshwa’ period.  Contents Sr.No. Lesson Name Pg. No. 1. First Farmers................................................... 1 2. First Cities of India......................................... 11 3. Chalcolithic Villages in India.......................... 21 4. Vedic Period.................................................... 28 5. Janapadas and Republics............................... 34 6. Second Urbanisation in India.......................... 38 7. India and Iran (Persia)..................................... 48 8. India during Mauryan period........................... 56 9. Post Mauryan India......................................... 64 10. Changing Times............................................... 69 11. Kingdoms in South India................................. 77 12. India, Nations in the northwest of.................. 84 the Indian Subcontinent and China 13. India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia............... 91 14. Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 102 15. India during Mughal period............................. 110 16. Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period)............ 117 S.O.I. Note : The following foot notes are applicable : (1) © Government of India, Copyright : 2019. (2) The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. (3) The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. (4) The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh. (5) The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971,” but have yet to be verified. (6) The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. (7) The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned. (8) The spellings of names in this map, have been taken from various sources.  1. First Farmers 1.1 River Valley Civilisations of the neolithic age. The river valley 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation : civilisations grew in four regions of the Agricultural Production world. Those regions were Mesopotamia, 1.3 The First Farmers in India Egypt, Indian Subcontinent and China. How did this all happen? We shall briefly review 1.4 Agricultural Settlements : it in this lesson. Organisation and Administration 1.5 Trade and Transport 1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation You would like to know : Scientists in the Bar Elan University of Israel 1.1 River Valley Civilisations have found out that ancient people had attempted cultivation, some 23000 Homo habilis made the first stone tools. years ago. They have recovered its These tools were useful only for simple jobs archaeological evidence from ‘Ohalo’, like scraping meat from the hides of dead animals, splitting bones to extract marrow, a palaeolithic camp site near the Sea breaking nuts, etc. To strike the stone with of Galili. At Ohalo the evidence of just enough impact and to remove flakes Barley and some other cereals, seeds from a stone in order to shape a tool, was of fruits has been found along with the mankind’s first big step in the field of traces of human occupation. There technology. The later species of mankind were also a few seeds of various after Homo habilis were more evolved. They weeds. These weeds are of evolved advanced human technology much further. types and they are found only with Through close observation of the seasonal cultivated crops. This fact confirms cycles in the nature, the Mesolithic people that the cereals found at Ohalo were could domesticate various plants and animals. the remains of cultivated crops and not It resulted into the rise of the ‘Neolithic of the wild variety. Additional evidence Age’. Cultivation and pastoralism (animal of grinding stones also came forth husbandry) became a way of life for neolithic from this site. They were used to grind people. It was the end of nomadic-semi the cereals before cooking them. nomadic life for them. Settled villages came into being. The archaeological evidence (1) The Valley of Euphrates and shows that systematic agriculture began some Tigris - Mesopotamia : Ancient Mesopotamia 12000-11000 years ago. Beginning of included modern Iraq, Syria as well as the agriculture and rise of settled villages are the western regions of Iran and south-eastern two phenomena that are inevitably associated regions of Turkey. with each other. The progress in the techniques Mesopotamia is the Greek name of the of systematic cultivation resulted in the rise region between the two rivers, Tigris and of the most ancient river valley civilisations Euphrates. Mesos means the ‘middle one’. 1 Potamos means ‘river’. The region between two rivers is ‘Mesopotamia’. The Mesolithic You would like to know : Egypt people began to stay in this region for longer was originally known as ‘Kemet’. times because of the availability of ample Egypt got this name because of the water. Also both the rivers flooded annually, black soil that was deposited by the making the soil on their banks very fertile. Nile floods. Later Egypt came to be The camps of Mesolithic people developed known as ‘Hwat-ka-Pta’. It means into the first settled neolithic villages. These the temple of God. The Greeks first villages are dated to 10000 years B.C.E. changed it to ‘Egyptus’. In the course The farmers in these villages grew wheat and of time it was changed to ‘Egypt’. barley. The Arabic name of Egypt is ‘Misra’. (2) The Valley of Nile - Egypt : The country in the northern parts of the African ancient remains in Egypt and published it. continent and in the valley of the Nile river These studies received a momentum because is ‘Egypt’. of the decipherment of the Rosetta inscriptions. Napoleon Bonaparte had taken along It became possible to read the Egyptian many scholars from various fields during his hieroglyphs.* invasion of Egypt in 1798. They studied the *Hieroglyphs = pictorial script 2  The first neolithic villages in Egypt came (4) The Valleys of Sindhu (Indus) and into being at about 6000 B.C.E. The beginning Saraswati - Indian Subcontinent : The region of agriculture in Egypt coincides with the of the valleys of Sindhu and Saraswati is same time. The first crops grown in these now divided between India and Pakistan. villages were wheat and barley. The archaeological excavations at (3) The Valley of the Huang He - Harappa on the banks of Ravi in Punjab and China : The valley of Huang He river is Mohenjo Daro on the banks of Sindhu in considered to be the region of origin of the Sindh, indicate the existance of a fully Chinese culture. The Chinese culture evolved developed civilisation in the Indian here. subcontinent which was dated to circa 3000 Agriculture in the neolithic villages of B.C.E. China began at about 7000 B.C.E. Wheat, A number of archaeological sites of foxtail millet and rice were grown by the neolithic villages have been now discovered. farmers in these villages. It proves that there were well settled villages in the Indian subcontinent as early as 8000 B.C.E. There is a general consensus among You would like to know : ‘Yellow the scholars that the Harappan cities evolved River’ is the English translation of from these early villages. the Chinese name ‘Huang He’. The yellow silt brought by her has earned Barley was the main crop grown by the farmers in these villages. However, wheat her this name. ‘River’ and ‘Mother’ was also grown on a smaller scale. The are her other names. These names farmers in these villages were the first indicate her extraordinary place in farmers of the Indian subcontinent. They the Chinese culture. The name ‘River’ kept cattle and goat-sheep. They lived in indicates that she is considered to be mud houses. the only river of importance. The fact The archaeological site at Mehrgarh in that she is considered to be the Baluchistan has yielded evidence of the mother of the Chinese culture, is continuous human occupation from the obvious in the name, ‘Mother’. neolithic times to the rise of Harappan Huang He and Yangtse in China civilisation and the material culture of the are the rivers, which receive waters respective periods. from the Himalayan glaciers as do 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation : the rivers Ganga, Sindhu and Agricultural Production Brahmaputra. Huang He flows so The transition from hunter-gatherer’s life rapidly that it continuously keeps to the beginning of cultivation was a very changing its course. The torrential slow process drawn over thousands of years. floods caused because of it used to Beginning of cultivation is also the beginning be very disastrous causing great loss of the neolithic age. It spans through 10000 of life and assets. Hence, she had – 8700 B.C.E. It may vary to some extent earned one more name, ‘Sorrow’ or from place to place. This period marked the the ‘River of Tears’. Now the terrible beginning of domestication of animals along river has been brought under control with the beginning of cultivation. Barley was by creating a number of dams and the main crop in this period. Other crops bunds on her. were wheat and flaxseed. 3  The blades used for Mesolithic tools were removed from siliceous stones by the technique known as ‘Fluted Core technique’. These blades are as tiny as our fingernails. So they are called ‘microliths’. The Mesolithic people used wooden arrows fixed with microlithic arrowheads. Mesolithic Blades (Microliths) Microliths used as arrowheads Fluted Core The serrated knife made by hafting microliths The serrated knife made by hafting microliths It is apparent that the common animals and vegetation for food increased. prerequisites were present in Mesopotamia, This period had also witnessed extinction of Egypt, China and Indian Subcontinent to species of gigantic animals like mammoth. initiate the onset of the Neolithic age and However, varied species of fish and small agriculture. The last Glacial period in the animals like goat, sheep, deer, etc. were history of our planet came to an end at amply available for food. The heavy tools of about 12000-11000 years ago. It was the Palaeolithic times were of no use either for beginning of a new epoch, which is known fishing or for hunting small animals. as ‘Holocene’. The technique of removing long stone With the beginning of the Holocene, blades had been developed in the Upper glaciers began to melt and the water volume Palaeolithic age. In the Mesolithic age the in the water bodies like rivers and ocean same technique was used and blades as small increased. As a result, the availability of as fingernails were removed to make tools. These blades known as microliths were either hafted* on the tips of wooden/bone shafts or in the grooves made on those shafts. Thus, modified composite tools like fishing harpoons, spears and arrows could be made. Ample cereals and fruits, grown naturally, were available. Tools like sickle and scythe were made by hafting microliths for harvesting the cereals and fruits. *To haft - fix with the help of rope and resin/gum Mammoth 4  Thus, the technology evolved; the transition was drawn over a prolonged period. techniques of hunting and obtaining food Nevertheless, considering radical changes in improved; food became available in plenty. the way of life during the Neolithic Age, the This resulted in making the Mesolithic people Australian archaeologist Gordon Childe stay at one place for a longer time of the coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’. year. Harvesting of naturally grown cereals 1.3 First Farmers of India led them into systematic cultivation. The Neo means ‘new’. Lithic means ‘of technique of agricultural and pastoral stone’. Neolithic age got its name because of operations (animal husbandry) continued to the stone tools of completely new types. It evolve. The nature of these operations is included short and long heads of axe, made such that the farmer is compelled to settle of polished stone and polished stone rings. down permanently near the cultivated land. The axe heads were hafted on wooden shafts He doesn’t need to go out in search of food. and used for cutting trees, scraping wood to This is how the villages were settled on a give it a desired shape, etc. It was essential permanent basis. This prepared the ground to clear jungles by felling trees in order to for the rise of the Neolithic Age. This obtain land for cultivation and settlement. The new tools came handy for this work. You would like to know : The We have already seen that the site of Palestinian city of Jericho on the banks Mehrgarh came into existence around 7000 of the river Jordan, is a historical city B.C.E. This site is of great importance among with hoary past. It first settled as a the neolithic villages in the Indian subcontinent village in 9000 B.C.E. It was one of established by the first farmers. The Mehrgarh the first neolithic permanent settlements. farmers cultivated barley and wheat. There It started getting organised into a well- is another site of a neolithic village that is knit society at about 8000 B.C.E. The contemporary to Mehrgarh. The site was village at this time had a protective found at ‘Lahuradeva’ in Sant Kabirnagar wall around it, complete with a watch tower. This is undoubtedly an evidence district of Uttar Pradesh. of an organised society. In Maharashtra, the mesolithic man The beginning of cultivation at existed during 10000-4000 B.C.E. He stayed Jericho and in the surrounding region in natural caves and under rock-shelters. He began earlier than the establishment of moved along the river banks. He made the village by a few centuries. Its microliths from silicious* stones. However, evidence has been discovered at Gilgal, no evidence of purely neolithic sites have a site near Jericho. A fire stricken been found in Maharashtra. What we have house at Gilgal was excavated, which instead, are the Chalcolithic villages. The yielded burnt remains of figs. After Chalcolithic people were the first farmers of carrying out laboratory analysis of Maharashtra. Inamgaon, in the Shirur taluka these fig remains, scientists have of Pune district, is an important site of the concluded that the neolithic people at village of Chalcolithic farmers in Maharashtra. Gilgal had systematically planted fig cuttings. This stands to be the first attempt of planned cultivation. *Siliceous stones - stones like quartz, chalcedony, agate, etc. 5  1.4 Agricultural Settlements : making of pottery seems to have begun in Organisation and Administration the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Pottery Researchers have attempted to estimate making, along with the polished stone tools, the population of neolithic villages with the is supposed to be an essential characteristic help of various mathematical and statistical of the neolithic cultures. The earthen pots models. With the help of those estimates we were used for the purpose of cooking, serving may gather some idea with regards to food and for storage. In the beginning these population compositions of those villages. pots were handmade. At a later stage, wheel- When Mesolithic people were witnessing the made pottery was introduced. The neolithic transition from nomadic-semi nomadic life to pottery in the beginning was in monochrome settled life, there could have been 25-40 (single colour), with a burnished* surface. people in any given group. Life dependent Some pots had carved designs. Also the on regular cultivation would need that number techniques of stamping and applique work**. to increase at least to 50. A village with at Gradually neolithic people began to decorate least a population of 100 could meet the their pots with painted designs. Thus, in the needs of individual members who would be latter half of the neolithic age, pottery making completely dependent on agriculture and had become an art that required special animal husbandry. skills. Neolithic villages were small in size. *Burnished - polished by rubbing with a wooden Permanently occupied dwellings (mostly or stone tool round huts) were characteristic of these **applique work - pasting wet clay ribbons and villages. Other than these dwellings, some making patterns on them places in the central part of the village were perhaps used as common storage places of To master the art of pottery-making one food-grains and other things. This internal needs to possess knowledge of following settlement pattern of the village indicates that things: the transactions related to food production (1) To know the source of clay of were centrally controlled. Accordingly a excellent quality. (2) To manage to obtain hierarchical chain of power positions must clay. (3) To knead and prepare the clay for have been established. At the same time pottery production. (4) To be able to turn the other social norms were also established. For pot to the desired shape. (5) To have artistic example: boundaries of individual households- skill for decorating the pottery. (6) To know families, ownership of land, food production the technique of baking pottery at proper to meet the needs of individual household- temperatures (approximately 850º-900º family and rules of kinship. The tradition of Celsius). imparting training of unique family skills of The class of skilled potters, equipped production to the younger members is with essential knowledge of all stages of supposed to have begun as early as the pottery-making, was already established in neolithic times. In other words, it may be the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Ancient said that the hierarchical social and family pottery can throw light on various aspects of structure and the concept of inheritance have ancient cultures. We get to know about the its roots in the neolithic times. cultural history, the material richness of the The culture known as ‘Jomon Culture’ place where it was found. With the help of of Japan was a mesolithic culture, which has pottery we can also know about the contacts yielded evidence of pottery making. Except of the residents of the place with other this example, everywhere else in the world cultures. 6  The neolithic period also saw rise of Excavations at neolithic sites yield beads, other skilled artisan classes based on waste material cast away during bead making specialised crafts. It is apparent that the skill process, faulty and incomplete beads and the of making beads of various types was tools used by the bead maker. The following acquired by neolithic artisans from the are the stages of bead making: beginning. They made beads of various types (1) To know the sources of siliceous of siliceous stones and chank shells. stones and chank shells. (2) To obtain the raw material. (3) To transport the raw For additional information : material to the manufacturing site. (4) To Some important Neolithic sites in India manufacture finished beads from the stones of irregular shape and the core of chank 1. The northwest region of the shells. The artisan has to be conversant with Indian continent : Phase I (7000- every stage of the bead manufacturing. 6000 B.C.E.) No evidence of pottery (earthen pots). Phase II (6000-4000 In brief, agricultural production, as well B.C.E.) Beginning of pottery as production of agricultural tools, pottery, making, e.g. Mehrgarh. beads etc. is a chain of various skill based 2. Jammu and Kashmir - around operations, which are completed step by step. 2500 B.C.E. neolithic settlements It is a complex system, which calls for established at the sites of Burzhom systematic division of labour and training of and Gufkral. people for various skills. This process leads to craft specialisation and creates various 3. Uttar Pradesh - around 6000 classes of skilled artisans. B.C.E. neolithic settlements established at the sites of Chopani 1.5 Trade and Transport Mando, Koldihwa and Mahagara. The nomadic-semi nomadic groups of 4. Bihar - around 2000 B.C.E. Mesolithic people had a system of barter neolithic settlements established at among themselves. The wheel was not yet sites like Chirand, Senuwar, etc. invented. It means that the means of 5. Northeast India - The evidence of mechanical transport were not available to neolithic settlement was first them. In the latter half of the neolithic age discovered at the site of Daojali people had started using beasts of burden for Hading in Assam. The village was transporting goods. established around 2700 B.C.E. The Tools like axe, scrapers and chisels neolithic tools found here show enabled neolithic people to cut trees and to more affinity to neolithic tools work on wood. Most probably round shaped found in China. pieces of wooden logs were used as wheels. 6. South India - The neolithic Such round pieces can easily gain momentum. settlements in Karnatak, Andhra The neolithic people invented wheel and Pradesh and Tamilnadu first came the technology they had developed so far, into being around 4th - 3rd century underwent a revolution. B.C.E. Karnatak sites - Sangankallu, The neolithic people began to produce Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalkota, wheel-made pottery. The wheel technology Piklihal, Hallur, etc. Andhra Pradesh made it possible to produce pottery on mass site - Nagarjunikonda. Tamilnadu scale. The invention of wheel also made it - Payyampalli possible to obtain raw material from distant places in much lesser time. It became easier 7 to send the finished goods to distant markets social organisation and administration. where it was in more demand. It helped to Eventually the villages expanded. Along with develop trade and transport on a greater it, awareness of collective land holdings and scale. the village boundaries became prominent. Thus, it was felt that the village community had a natural right over the immediate By the Way : territory around the village periphery. This The neolithic wheel kind of awareness of natural right over a might have been particular region is known as ‘territoriality’. similar to the wheel Rules and social norms were created in order seen here. We do to manage the collective resources, water not know, how old sources, crafts dependent on it, trade and is this wheel. It community life, etc. Consequently rituals and appears here as an their details gained importance. The need of illustration, only to managing and keeping records of trade, give some idea of a rituals, writing systems and administrative wooden wheel, made by using a round machineries developed. It gave rise to shaped piece cut from a wooden log. administrative centres. Such administrative centres attract large number of population 1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation which includes officials, people from various occupations. As a result, periphery of the After settling down at one place for a original settlement kept expanding and cities long time, a feeling of ownership arose came into being. Thus began the process of among the neolithic people. This feeling was urbanisation in the neolithic age. focused on their individual dwellings and the piece of land cultivated by them. This has In the next lesson we shall learn about been already mentioned in the context of the first cities of India. Exercise Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (c) Herodotus write the complete sentences. (d) Collingwood (1) ‘Yellow River’ is the English (3) The neolithic people at Gilgal had translation of the Chinese name systematically planted trees.. (a) Guava (b) Sapodilla (a) Kemet (b) Mother (c) Fig (d) Indian blackberry (c) Sorrow (d) Huang He (2) The Australian archaeologist (4) in the Shirur taluka of coined the term ‘Neolithic Pune district, is an important site of Revolution’. the village of Chalocolithic farmers (a) Gorden Willey in Maharashtra. (b) Gorden Childe (a) Saradwadi (b) Ranjangaon (c) Pabal (d) Inamgaon 8  (B) Find the incorrect pair from set B Q.4 State your opinion. and write the correct ones. (1) There were radical changes in Set ‘A’ Set ‘B’ the way of human life during the (1) The valley of Mesopotamia neolithic age. Tigris and Euphrates (2) The neolithic people invented (2) The valley of Nile Iran wheel and the technology they (3) The valley of China had developed so far, underwent a Huang He revolution. (4) The valley of Indian Q.5 Observe the map on page 2 of your Sindhu (Indus) subcontinent textbook and answer the following and Saraswati questions based on it. Q.2 Complete the concept map. (1) What is the name of the sea at the Stage 2 north of the African continent? (2) In which continent did the Harappan civilisation originate ? (3) What is the name of the ocean at Stage 4 the south of India? Stage 1 Q.6 Write short notes. Bead-making (1) Neolithic ‘Jericho’ Method and Stages of production (2) ‘Holocene’ epoch Stage 3 Q.7 Answer the following questions in Manufacturing finished detail. beads from the stones of irregular shape and the (1) Write in detail about the ‘first core of chank shells. farmers’ and beginning of agriculture in India. (2) What knowledge was essential for Q.3 Explain the following statements with the neolithic people to make pottery? reasons. (3) Write about the trade and transport (1) The camps of Mesolithic people in the neolithic age. developed into the first settled (4) Write about the beginning of villages of neolithic people in urbanisation in the neolithic age. Mesopotemia. (2) ‘Huang He’ river is considered to be Activity the mother of the Chinese culture. Write in detail about any of the ancient (3) In the latter half of the neolithic civilisations. age, pottery-making had become an  art that required special skills. 9 Neolithic Age 8000-3000 B.C.E. First Farmers You womenfolk began to grow food in the yards. Now there is no need to go hunting everyday. Yes ! There is always some food available. The villagers have chosen me as their Is there any ‘Chief ’. It’s a problem ? great responsibility. Yes ! Now There should Our ancestors I need to be equal had to wander in complete a few justice to all. the wilderness for chores. food and water. Our coming generations will We should take be here in this village. good care of We are well-rooted in our land, water this soil, now. and cattle. I took a round There used to be a small village here. in the village market. Now look ! We are a big city ! Let’s pray ! Saw some people May our city be safe forever ! from neighbouring May there never be any hard times ! villages. Good ! We will have better trade with them. 10  2. First Cities of India 2.1 Characteristics of Harappan Harayana. The total area covered by it is Civilisation about 1500000 Sq. Kms. The Harappan 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far, and Villages more than 2000 sites of the Harappan 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation civilisation have been recorded. The remains and Administration found at cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, 2.4 Decline of the Cities Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc. are the evidence of the past glory of this 2.1 Characteristics of Harappan civilisation. Civilisation The history of these cities had three It has been mentioned earlier that the stages: (1) Early Harappan period roots of the Harappan civilisation are to be (2) Mature Harappan (urban) period (3) Late found in the pre-Harappan culture of Neolithic Harappan period. times at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. This The question regarding the authors of the culture is known as ‘Togao culture’. It shows Harappan civilisation still remains mysterious. traces of the beginning of the Harappan Some of the main characteristics of the culture. Jean Francois Jarrige and Richard Harappan cities are noted below. Meadow conducted the excavations at (1) Systematic Town Planning : Mehrgarh. Another neolithic culture of the Houses of baked bricks complete with pre-Harappan period is known as ‘Ravi or bathrooms, toilets, wells, etc., existance of Hakra culture’. Its remains have been found granaries, impressive public monuments, during the excavations at sites like Harappa English bond masonry (method of using two (Punjab, Pakistan), Kunal, Bhirrana and headers and two stretchers alternatively while Farmana (Harayana). building a wall – this method is specially A few years ago it was strongly believed useful in earthquake prone regions), Excellent that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at drainage system, public baths, two or more about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information divisions of the city with each division was available regarding the period before enclosed by independent fortification walls, that. This situation continued till the discovery Streets crossing each other in right angles of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in and the resulted blocks used for building 1922. The discovery of the Harappan houses (grid pattern). Civillisation at these two places stretched the (2) Central Administration : antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 Administrative control over the distribution of B.C.E. At that time a well-developed and water and other resources, Standardisation : rich civilisation had flourished in the Indian For example, the size of bricks in the ratio subcontinent. It extended from Afghanistan to of 1:2:4, weights increasing in the proportion Maharashtra and from Makaran coast to of 8, set style of shapes and painted designs 11 of pottery, majestic and non-residential is important. At that time, he was the buildings for public administrative offices. Director General of the Archaeological (3) Social organisation : Social hierarchy Survey of India. During the excavation he based on position of power, classes of skilled could trace the fortification wall around the artisans and individuals based on craft citadel of Harappa. specialisation, belief systems and artefacts/ The first settlement of the Early Harappan architecture indicative of them, evidence of period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It burials indicative of rituals after death. evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban) (4) Economy : Mass production of goods phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its for trading purpose : For example, well- peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E. Around 1900 shaped, beautiful earthen pots, statues, metal B.C.E. some internal changes begin to appear objects of gold, silver, copper and bronze, in the Harappan cities. This is the time of various types of beautiful beads, etc. the onset of the Late Harappan phase. This Concentration of factories and residences of phase indicates the decline of Harappan artisans in a particular area of the city for civilisation. the sake of convenience of production. The evidence of the first excavations at Flourishing internal and distant trade, Harappa had indicated that the city of administrative control over trade transactions. Harappa was divided into two parts - the (5) Use of Developed Writing System  : ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However, The script on Harappan seals. recent excavations show that it had four divisions. Apart from the citadel and the Some Cities of the Harappan lower town there were factories and the Civilisation quarters of artisans in the Southeast part of Harappa : Harappa is situated on the the city. The area toward the north of the banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in citadel had a granary and the quarters of the Punjab, Pakistan). The ancient site of Harappa workers working there. It is obvious that the had spread on 150 Hectares. The first officials staying in the citadel supervised excavation at Harappa began in 1921. More over the granary and the workers working excavations were conducted at the site, from there. A few working platforms were found time to time. Among them the excavations near the granary. conducted in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler For additional Information : 1. The bed remains dry through the year except archaeological cultures are named after the during the monsoon. It is known as site where the characteristic pottery and Ghaggar in India and as Hakra in Pakistan. artifacts of the culture were discovered for A number of Harappan settlements were the first time. discovered along its dry beds during 2. The river known as ‘Ghaggar- exploratory surveys. Hakra’ flows only during the monsoon. It 3. Many scholars are of the opinion originates in the Siwalik hills in the that the dry beds of Ghaggar-Hakra are Himachal Pradesh and flows to Rajasthan the traces of the vanished river ‘Saraswati’. through Punjab and Haryana. From there Satellite images of dry beds are being it enters the desert of Cholistan in Pakistan. studied in depth by scholars to gather Ultimately it enters the Rann of Kutch. Its more information about these dry beds. 12  You would like to know : Before the of Harappa by the reports written by Masson discovery of the Harappan civilisation, and Burnes. He conducted excavations at Alexander’s invasion in 326 B.C.E. was the Harappa during 1872-73 C.E. After that for only evidence available in the context of next 48 years no excavations were conducted ancient History of India and Pakistan. How at the site. However, during this long interval this situation entirely changed because of the the curiosity for Harappan site among the discovery of the Harappan cities, is a fascinating European scholars had not vanished. A story. It began in the year of 1829. Charles general impression prevailed among them Masson, a British traveller was the first one to that the Harappan seals had some connection visit and write about the archaeological remains with the Mesopotamian civilisation. at Harappa. He thought that these remains could be that of the capital of King Porus who The drawing of a Harappan seal published fought with Alexander. Lieutenant Alexander by Sir Alexander Burnes, a British officer was the next one to Cunningham. The visit this site. Harappan seal here appears to be rectangular. Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first However, Harappan Director General of the Archaeological Survey seals, in reality are of India. His attention was attracted to the site square in shape. 13  Mohenjodaro : The excavations at Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began in 1921-22. He concluded, because of the similarity between the seals and other artefacts, that the ancient civilisations of Mesopotamia and Harappa A multi-roomed house at Mohenjodaro had cultural Chandigarh. Considering the economic and Harappan Pots ties with each human resources required for the creation of other. In 1923- a pre-planned city like Mohenjodaro, it is 24, to gather more information about obvious that it was created to serve a Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath distinctive purpose. Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others Kalibangan : The site of Kalibangan is conducted further excavations under Sir John 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is Marshall’s direction. He was the Director located in the Hanumangarh district of General of the Archaeological Survey of Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban India at that time. During these excavations centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated various artefacts, houses and public on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P. monuments were unearthed. Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of Kalibangan during his study tour of the the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District region. He had reported that Kalibangan is Larkana, Sindh). It was not possible to reach an ancient site and it could be prehistoric. It the bottom layer during the excavations was confirmed to be a Harappan city only because of the high levels of groundwater. after the excavations began there in 1960. It However, it is likely that a neolithic settlement was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi contemporary to the one at Mehrgarh existed Lal, the then Director General of the there. Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna Areawise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest Thapar. city, among those discovered in Pakistan so At Kalibangan two settlements, one of far. It was thought that the city was divided the Mature Harappan period and the other of into two fortified sections, namely the the Early Harappan period, were found. ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However, Kalibangan was a small city compared to there was an additional section of the market. Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The division of In this section were found various workshops, the city into the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower kilns for baking pottery and beads. Town’ was found here also. The site of The remains at Mohenjodaro were Kalibangan is important for two things. The considerably intact. So the glory of the city first is the ploughed field of the Early was revealed in way of the houses, majestic Harappan period. This field is dated to about buildings, wide streets, etc. Thus the evidence 2800 B.C.E. The furrow marks in this ancient of the impressive town planning, and public field are similar to the furrows of modern administration, characteristic of the Harappan fields in the surrounding area. The other civilisation came into light. The town planning thing is the series of six to seven fire altars of the Harappan cities can be easily compared in the citadel. Evidence of fire alters inside with the town planning of a modern city like the houses of common people has also been 14 unearthed. Apart from this there was a house with a series of fire altars outside the fortification wall. Some of them contained animal bones. According to some archaeologists, this might be indicative of fire worship. Lothal : The centre of the Harappan civilisation at Lothal was situated near the Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the The Water Tank at Dholavira supervision of S.R. Rao. sites, extentwise Dholavira is the fifth largest The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at city. Its town planning is somewhat different Lothal do not have separate fortification compared to other Harappan cities. walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single An Early Harappan settlement was fortification wall. discovered at Dholavira. There was a Lothal was established on the banks of protective wall built around it by using mud the river Bhogao. The presence of platforms bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones. built for stalls, a warehouse, and the dock The layers above this settlement had the confirm that Lothal was an important Harppan city of Mature Harappan phase. It Harappan port and trading centre. The was surrounded by an outer fortification wall. architecture of the dock at Lothal is an The settlement within the outer fortification example of the engineering excellence of was divided into four sections. ancient people. At present Lothal is away (1) Citadel (2) The adjacent section from the sea. However, in the ancient times reserved for high officials (3) Lower Town Lothal was in the delta region of the gulf of – These three sections had walls, which Kutch. It is clear that the Harappan settlers separated them from each other. (4) The of Lothal had a good knowledge of the high fourth section inside the outer fortification and low tides and accordingly the rising and did not have any additional separating walls. receding pattern of Bhogao waters. The dock This fourth section was perhaps meant for was built to facilitate the entry of boats the workers. A dam of baked bricks and during the high tide and their exit during low stone was built to obstruct the water of two tides. Once the boats entered the dock, the streams, which flowed near the closed city water was drained out through a sluice gate and the water was diverted to canals and into a canal. The sluice gate of baked bricks lakes. This was the most ancient system of was built to reduce the water level in the planned water management. dock as and when required. Then the repair Rakhigarhi : In the Hissar district of work of the boats was completed and with Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a the rise of water the boats could sail back. Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150 Dholavira : Dholavira was discovered kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the by J.P. Joshi, the Director General of banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river). Archaeological Survey of India. The site is Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site, in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch). among all the sites from India and Pakistan. Excavations at the site were started by R.S. Its total area was more than 350 Hectares. Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in 15 1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, administration. The raw material needed for Dr.Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Harappan industrial production included clay, Pune also conducted excavations at the site. various siliceous and semi-precious stones, At Rakhigarhi, all characteristics of the metals, etc. The interrelationship between Harappan cities were present. It was the Harappan cities and villages was dependent main centre of the Harappan civilisation in on the mechanism of making available, its eastern region. At this site too, evidence things like food grains and the raw materials. of fire altars like Kalibangan have been Not that all the pre-Harappan settlements found. were transformed into cities and towns. Indeed, cemeteries were found at various Some of them did not change notably. There other Harappan sites, but the human skeletal was a network of small towns, small and big remains from there were not studied to villages and camp sites of semi-nomadic analyse the hereditary characteristics of the people, which functioned to cater to the needs population. However, the human bones from of major urban centres of the Harappan Rakhigarhi were subjected to genetic analysis. civilisation. It included villages in remote Scientists believe that in due course it would regions as well. The best example of it is provide satisfactory answers to the question the Harappan settlement of ‘Shortugai’ in the of the origin of Harappan people. Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This region is rich with mines of lapis lazuli. For Additional Information : (1) Many There was a great demand for this semi- sites of the Early Harappan and Mature precious stone in Mesopotamia. The Harappan (Urban) phases have been found Mesopotamian epics in the basin of the river Ghaggar. The describe Goddess Inanna’s latest research based on the evidence from palace, the walls of which sites like Kunal, Bhirrana, Farmana, were embedded with this Girwad and Mitathal, etc. indicate a stone. This stone was a possibility of the rise of the Mature very important commodity Lapis lazuli stone Harappan more than 5000 years ago. If in the Harappan trade this is proved in due course, then it may with Mesopotamia. be said that it first developed in the Ghaggar basin. Evidence from Rakhigarhi 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation may prove to be instrumental in reaching and Administration positive conclusion in this context. In the early phase of agriculture, making (2) The Harappan sites of Mohenjodaro, earthen pots and farming were the jobs of Harappa, Ganweriwala in Pakistan and women. The pots fashioned by women were Rakhigarhi and Dholavira in India have handmade. They used a digging stick for been declares as World Heritage sites. sowing the seeds. With these methods women could manage production, just enough to 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities meet the family needs or at the most those and Villages of the extended family. Surplus production We have seen that the Harappan cities was not possible with their methods. arose as a result of the process of the The use of bullocks as draft animals (for development and expansion of the pre- ploughing and transport) had begun in the Harappan settlements. The city people are Early Harappan period. The use of wheel dependent on the natural resources and enabled speedy and mass production of pottery. villages in their vicinity in order to meet the Use of ploughs pulled by bullocks enhanced needs of urban way of life and urban the agricultural production. The clay replicas 16 of ploughs are recovered from the Harappan were also exclusively industrial settlements. site at Banawali in Harayana. It became Chanudaro in Sindh was an important possible to obtain necessary commodities in industrial town. It is apparent that the exchange of agricultural produce. This was outposts in Gujarat were specially established the beginning of barter system. The food grains for the convenience of trade. It was easier were exchanged, especially to obtain salt, to reach the sources of copper, chank shells metals and precious objects. and semi-precious stones from the outposts During the Mature (urban) Harappan like Kuntasi, Nageshwar, Bagasara, etc. in period the sphere of commodity exchange Kutch-Saurashtra. It was also easier to ship expanded and their import-export increased out the finished goods from these outposts to a great extent. The internal and distant located near the coast of Saurashtra. Carrying trade received momentum. Trade with distant out all the operations like procurement of the places like Mesopotamia became regular. raw material, production of finished goods Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during and its export from one and the same region, Early Harappan times. The Akkadian empire certainly proves to be beneficial for trade. was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Harappan people built the trading outposts Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan with this view in mind. These were small in trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the extent, but were important industrial centres. Harappan cities reached their peak. One of Dholavira was the city built to oversee the the administrative records of emperor Sargon trading transactions in Sourashtra. Lothal describes the trade with distant places. It was an important sea port. seems that the importance of trade by land routes passing through Iran and Central Asia For Additional Information : had diminished in the Mature Harappan Mesopotamia is known for its grand period and the sea trade had become the temples. The administrative system of preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and Mesopotamian cities revolved around the ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important administration of these temples. Mesopotamian temples are known as centres on the sea route. Dilmun is identified ‘ziggurats’. The high priest of the temple with Bahrain, Makan with the coastal region used to be the ruler of the city. The social of Oman-Iran-Baluchistan and Meluhha with life, cultural events, power and hierarchy the region of Harappan civilisation. Copper of officials, etc. were organised in was available in large amounts in Meluhha. accordance with the rituals and festivals of The name Meluhha is supposed to have its the presiding deity of the temple. The origin in the red colour of copper. The notion of a ‘Priest-King’ of the Harappan commodities exported from Meluhha to civilisation was formulated by presuming Mesopotamia included copper, ivory objects, its close similarity with the Mesopotamian lapis lazuli, carnelian beads, textiles, timber culture. Mesopotamia was rich in as well as monkeys and peacocks. The bodies agricultural production. However, it did not (mummies) of dead royalties in Egypt were have enough sources of precious metals, wrapped in blue coloured cloth. Indigo, gems and timber. These things were necessary for dyeing this cloth was exported imported there. Many of the Mesopotamian brick inscriptions contain the lists of by Harappan traders. Harappan traders are imported commodities and the place names likely to have received wool, gold and silver from where they were imported. The in exchange for these commodities. exports from Mesopotamia included textiles, The Harappan cities had a reserved pottery and leather products. section for the industrial production. There 17  It is clear that a well organised continuous internal conflicts in Mesopotemia. administrative system existed to manage the Along with it increasing salination of industrial production, import-export, the agricultural land was the main reason of the interrelationship between cities managing decline of the Mesopotamian civilisation. It trading operations and villages around them. weakened the Mesopotamian market that was The town planning, standardisation of bricks, available to the Harappan goods. weights, seals, shapes and ornamentation of 2. Deteriorating environment was the various objects, etc. confirm the presence of main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia. such administrative system. However the Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating nature of Harappan polity, whether it was a environment were the main reasons of the single state or a federation of small states, decline of the Harappan civilisation too. is not yet known. The cities like Mohenjodaro, Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became Harappa, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi were increasingly arid and there were frequent perhaps regional capitals. Cities like famines. Degradation of cultivable land was Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal and on the increase. It is mentioned earlier that Rakhigarhi were important religious centres. sites of Harappan civilisation have been 2.4 Decline of the Cities discovered in large numbers in the basin of 1. When Harappan civilisation was Saraswati, which is now known as Ghaggar/ discovered, it was presumed that its cities Hakra. The interrelationship between were destroyed by invading tribes who came Harappan cities and villages that formed the from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ support system of the socio-economic life of meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The the cities dwindled in this period. The Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting devastating earthquake in the Saraswati basin the definition of ‘pura’. Sir Mortimer Wheeler was the major reason responsible for it. The on this basis concluded that Indra destroyed earthquake raised the ground level of the the Harappan cities. In turn, he declared that river bed causing a barrier causing Sutlaj the Vedic Aryans destroyed the Harappan and Yamuna, the tributaries of the Saraswati cities under the leadership of Indra. This to change its course. As a result the Saraswati declaration by Wheeler received a general dried up and the Harappans had to migrate approval among the scholars at that time. elsewhere. Harappan cities were abandoned. However, more concrete evidence in the The settlements that came up on the context of Harappan civilisation is available remains of the Harappan cities were not now, which does not agree with Wheeler’s developed and rich. These settlements opinion. It is now known that the Harappan belonged to Late Harappan people. The civilisation began to decline around 2000- pottery, houses, funerary customs of these 1900 B.C.E. People had to migrate elsewhere. people were different. The Late Harappan With this, began the Late Harappan period. people were also forced to migrate because The Harappan civilisation deteriorated as of natural calamities. New villages were the cumulative effect of various factors such settled by the Mature Harappan and Late as decline in trade, climatic changes, Harappan people wherever they went. It gave weakening of the economy, etc. rise to new rural cultures. The spread of The Harappan trade with Mesopotamia these new cultures is seen in Rajasthan, was on the decline in the Late Harappan Gujarat, Malawa and Maharashtra. These period because the Mesopotamian economy new cultures are known as ‘Chalcolithic had weakened. One reason of it was Cultures’. We will learn about these cultures in the next lesson. 18  Note : Terminology (1) Pre-Harappan Cultures - Cultures of the period preceding the Harappan civilisation (2) Early Harappan period - Early (beginning) Harappan phase (3) Mature (Urban) Harappan period - Fully developed phase of Harappan civilisation (4) Late Harappan period - Period after the decline of the mature (Urban) phase (5) Post Harappan cultures - Rural cultures that came up after the Harappan civilisation vanished. Exercise Q.1 Choose the correct alternative and (3) Shortugai Mesopotamia write the complete sentences. (4) Meluhha Region of Harappan (1) In the early phase of agriculture, civilisation making pots and farming were the jobs of women. Q.3 Explain the statements with reasons. (a) copper (b) bronze (1) The remains found at cities like (c) earthen (d) stone Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc. (2) Lothal is known for its ancient are the evidence of the past glory of. Harappan civilisation. (a) agriculture (b) dock (c) textiles (d) tools (2) Lapis lazuli had a very important (3) A general impression prevailed that the place in the Harappan trade. Harappan seals had some connection (3) Harappan civilisation declined. with the civilisation. Q.4 State your opinion. (a) Chinese (b) Greek (c) Mesopotamian (d) Egyptian (1) The Harappan cities and villages in the vicinity were interdependent. (4) The bodies (mummies) of dead (2) The Harappan cities seem to have a royalties in Egypt were wrapped in well-organised administrative system. coloured cloth. (a) white (b) black Q.5 Answer the following question with the (c) red (d) blue help of given points. Q.2 (A) Choose the correct reason and Write about the characteristics of complete the sentence. Harappan cities with the help of given The major reason for the decline of the points. Mesopotamian civilisation was - (a) Town planning (a) foreign invasion (b) Social organisation (b) deteriorting environment (c) Administration (c) loss in trade (d) Economy (d) migration Activity (B) Find the incorrect pair from Set B Collect information and illustrations with and write the correct ones. the help of internet about the town Set ‘A’ Set ‘B’ planning of the Harappan cities and (1) Dilmun Bahrain Chandigarh. Compare them. (2) Makan Oman-Iran- Baluchistan coastal region  19 20  3. Chalcolithic Villages in India 3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India 3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra 3.3 Megalithic Period in India 3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India Design on Harappan Jar - Cemetery ‘H’ When the Mature (urban) Harappan civilisation collapsed completely, the people on the Mature Harappan pottery. On one of of Late Harappan cultures who had settled the cemetery ‘H’ pots dead humans are seen on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had carried by peacocks in their stomach. In brief to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans the characteristics of the Late Harappan and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever culture were different. these people reached, new rural cultures came Some archaeologists are of the opinion into being. that the Late Harappans were perhaps Vedic The discipline of architecture, town Aryans. However, more research is required planning of the Mature Harappan period was to know whether the Late Harappans were absent in the Late Harappan settlements, the successors of the Mature Harappan people established on the ruins of the Harappan or whether they were the Vedic Aryans. cities. The designs found on the burial pots in ‘Cemetary H’ at Harappa were different. Rajasthan These designs include motifs like sun, moon, (1) ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture : The fish, deer and peacock, which do not occur chalcolthic cultures in India generally belong Revision in Brief : There were these things to the local people wherever Neolithic villages before the rise of the they went. Thus, new rural cultures with Harappan cities. Neolithic people had regional variations came into being. the technology of making copper objects. These cultures are known as Chalcolithic They were also skilled potters. Eventually, culture. Chalcolithic cultures belonged to their technology improved and the people who used tools of copper as well progress led to the origin of the Harappan as stone. However copper was used cities. sparingly by chalcolithic people. People of the Mature Harappan and A number of Chalocolithic sites have the Late Harappan culture had the been found in Rajasthan, the Ganga knowledge of wheel-made pottery, valley, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, cultivation of wheat and barley, making Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. of copper objects. They must have taught 21 to the post-Harappan period. However, the was surrounded by a fortification wall. These ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad characteristics confirm that Balathal people region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the were in close contact with the Harappans. Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund The Balathal people obtained copper near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar from the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. They culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated knew the technology of smelting copper. It to 4000 B.C.E. seems Balathal was the source for the It was first discovered at Ahar near Harappans to obtain copper and copper Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture. objects. Ahar is located on the banks of Ahar, a (2) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture : tributary of the river Banas, So it is also Many sites of the culture known as known as ‘Banas’ culture. ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been The archaeological evidence shows that found in the vicinity of the copper mines at Balathal was a centre of mass production of Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than pottery. The pottery made at Balathal was the Harappan civilisation. During the supplied to other settlements of Ahar culture. excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts Along with pottery, terracotta bull figurines, like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons, objects made of chank shell, stone blades, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found. chisels, arrowheads, copper tools, etc. were The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture found here, in large quantities. The houses at supplied copper objects to the Harappans. Balathal were built of baked bricks, by The Ganga Valley placing two headers and two stretchers Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper alternatingly (English bond method). Balathal Hoards : Initially the Ochre Colured Pottery (OCP) was mostly found in river beds. By the way : An archaeological Generally the potsherds of OCP are found in culture is usually named after the worn out, rounded and brittle conditions as site where it was discovered first. they remained in flowing water for a long Every culture has its characteristic time. Now, a number of sites of the OCP pottery. The pottery is the main clue culture are found in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar to identify a particular culture. Pradesh. Among the types of pottery of House floors the Ahar culture Black-and-Red type of these people pottery is important. It is made on were made by wheel. The inner side and the outer ramming. On the portion near the neck is red and rest house floors were of the pot is black. If the pot is kept found traces of in a reverted position while baking hearths, terracotta its inner side turns black and the male figurines outer surface turns red. Or else, the and bull figurines. portion, which is covered by husk or Remains of cattle hay becomes black and the uncovered bones, rice and portion becomes red. Copper Hoard - Harpoon, barley were also axe head, ring etc. found. This 22 evidence indicates that people of this culture troughs of various sizes. stayed in settled villages and practiced Madhya Pradesh agriculture. (1) Kayatha Culture : Kayatha is a site The OCP culture in Rajasthan is dated situated on the banks of the river known as to about 3000 B.C.E. The same culture ‘Chhoti Kali Sindh’, at a distance of 25 existed in Ganga-Yamuna Doab around 2000 kilometres from Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. B.C.E. Kayatha culture was contemporary to The Copper Hoards found in India come the Harappan civilisation. The people of from various regions, such as Uttar Pradesh, Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh. animal husbandry. They mainly used The copper objects found in these hoards handmade pots and microliths. Artefacts like indicate that the artisans who