Motivation PDF - Experimental Psychology Course

Motivation Experimental Psychology Course Prof. Federica Biassoni A.Y. 2024/2025 Table of Contents What is motivation Homeostasis & drives Instict theory Approach and avoidance motivation Social cognitive theories Expectancy x Value Theory Intrinsic vs...

Motivation Experimental Psychology Course Prof. Federica Biassoni A.Y. 2024/2025 Table of Contents What is motivation Homeostasis & drives Instict theory Approach and avoidance motivation Social cognitive theories Expectancy x Value Theory Intrinsic vs Extrinsic motivation Self-Efficacy Psychodynamic approach Humanistic approach Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs McClelland’s Human Motivation Self-Determination Theory Positive Psychology Motivation Motivation Is a condition that energizes behavior Influences the direction, persistence and vigour of goal-directed behaviour Goal: the cognitive representation of a desired state. Motivation is subjectively experienced as conscious desire. Motivation Arises from two sources: internal drive factors (e.g. hunger) external incentive factors (e.g. food) Incentives Primary reinforcers: able to act as rewards independently of prior experience Secondary reinforcers: able to act as rewards at least partly through learning about their relationship to other events Incentive Motivation & Reward Incentive motivation Wanting something associated with affect (full range of consciously experienced pleasure & displeasure) Most incentives need to be learned Incentive salience: objects/events have become linked to anticipated pleasurable affect Wanting: anticipation of pleasure Dopamine system in the brain appears to underlie experience Liking: pleasure experienced in the moment  Perspectives on Motivation: Homeostasis and drives Homeostasis: a state of homeostasis (= internal physiological equilibrium) that the body strives to maintain à Set point: fixed level that maintains homeostasis. Homeostasis requires: A sensory mechanism to measures internal state and detect change in the internal environment A control centre that receives information from the sensors and makes a comparison between the set point & the sensory signal A response that activates the response systems and reduces difference between the two. Body temperature & homeostasis The control processes to maintain temperature include physiological responses (e.g. sweating & shivering), and behavioral responses (e.g. find shade, remove clothing, cool drink). Neurons in various parts of the brain (especially the hypothalamus) detect temperature changes & trigger physiological responses & sensations that lead to behavioral solutions. Thirst as a homeostatic process Two kinds of fluid reservoirs in the body: intracellular reservoir extracellular reservoir Thirst happens when: loss of extracellular fluid is detected by blood pressure sensors, neurons in major veins & organs that respond to drop in pressure loss of intracellular fluid is detected by osmotic sensors, neurons in the hypothalamus that respond to dehydration  Perspectives on Motivation: Homeostasis and drives Drives = states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension (e.g. hunger, thirst) à focus on the biological domain. Hull (1943) extended this proposal by drawing upon learning theory, and argued that any behaviour that resulted in a reduction in these drives would be reinforced. Consequently, if after feeling hunger an animal engages in a behaviour that results in the reduction of hunger, then that behaviour is reinforced and more likely to be repeated. Perspectives on Motivation: Homeostasis and drives Behaviour resulting in reduction of drives reinforcement Over time, the animal learns which behaviours result in the best reduction of certain drives (hunger, thirst, desire for a mate, etc.). Hull later extended his theory to include external incentives as well as those resulting from internal drives. Thus, drive theory attempts to integrate both biological and cognitive (learning) processes, which appear to underpin motivation. Perspectives on Motivation: Homeostasis and drives Drives: states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension (e.g. hunger, thirst) BUT… We often behave in ways that seem to increase rather than reduce states of arousal (e.g. dieting, watch horror movies, ride roller-coasters) Some behaviour cannot be explained through drive reduction (going to an art gallery, going to the theatre) The drives theory has been criticized for being unable to account for a less biologically driven behaviour or for behaviours that seem to increase rather than reduce states of arousal or drives. Perspectives on Motivation: Instinct Theories Instinct = a fixed action pattern. An inherited characteristic, common to all members of a species, that automatically produces a particular response when the organism is exposed to a particular stimulus. William James (1890) à suckling, crying, biting and clasping, to more social activities such as imitation, sympathy, modesty, shame, love, play and curiosity. Modern theories rely on studies of genetics using twin and adoption studies to test how strongly hereditary accounts for differences in in many aspect s of behaviour. Evolutionary underpinnings of many aspects of much instinctive behaviour. Perspectives on Motivation: Approach and avoidance motivation Approach and avoidance theories try to take greater account of the role of a person's context or environment. “Optimal arousal” theory (Hebb, 1955): the level of stimulation in the environment influences brain arousal, which in turn influences behaviour (in terms of approach or avoidance). Too little and too much stimulation were both considered to be undesirable; somewhere between these states was optimal stimulation. Consequently, if presented with a boring environment, the organism will seek stimulation and, when presented with an over-stimulating environment, it will seek peace and quiet. Perspectives on Motivation: Approach and avoidance motivation According to Jeffrey Gray (1991), the seemingly universal tendencies of approach and avoidance, reflect the activity of two distinct neural systems in the brain. Behavioural Activation System (BAS): roused to action by signals of potential reward and positive need gratification Causes the person to move toward positive goals in anticipation of pleasure Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS): responds to stimuli that signal potential pain, non-reinforcement and punishment Produces fear and escape/avoidant behaviours Perspectives on Motivation: Approach and avoidance motivation  Perspectives on Motivation: Approach and avoidance motivation Approach and avoidance motivation (continued): BAS and BIS involve different neurotransmitter systems and different brain regions BAS involves the prefrontal area in the left hemisphere BIS involves several structures of the limbic system and the right frontal lobe Theory helps organise the cognitive, physiological and behavioural process involved in maximize pleasure and minimize pain, gravitate towards rewards, and avoid punishment and deprivation. Approach and avoidance motivation: Motivational conflict Approach–approach conflict: we face two attractive alternatives and selecting one means losing the other Avoidance–avoidance conflict: we must choose between two undesirable alternatives Approach-avoidance conflict: involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal. Approach and avoidance motivation: Motivational conflict Approach and avoidance tendencies grow stronger as we get nearer to a desired goal. Usually, the avoidance tendency increases in strength faster than the approach. Thus at first we may be attracted to a goal and only slightly repelled by its drawbacks, but as we get closer to it the negative aspects become dominant. Approach and avoidance motivation: Motivational conflict However, the general strength of approach and avoidance tendencies differs across people. Behavioural activation system-dominated individuals are more attuned to positive stimuli and the possibility of obtaining desired outcomes, whereas those with strong BIS tendencies are more sensitive to actual and anticipated negative outcomes (Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Sutton, 2002). Perspectives on Motivation: Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation Social cognitive theories try to explain behaviour in terms of the interaction between an individual's cognition and the social environment. Incentives, expectancies and the notion of internal versus external motivation are the features that have been most studied in this domain. Whereas drives are viewed as physiological forces that propel an organism into action, incentives represent environmental stimuli that pull an organism towards a goal. Perspectives on Motivation: Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation BUT… why people often respond differently to the same incentive? Expectancy x Value Theory: goal-directed behaviour is jointly determined by: the strength of the expectation that behaviour will lead to a goal and the incentive value that person places on the goal à Motivation = Expectancy x Incentive Value Perspectives on Motivation: Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation Two kinds of motivation: Extrinsic Motivation: performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment Intrinsic Motivation: performing an activity for its own sake Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation: Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977) In Bandura's social cognitive theory, a person's motivation affects behaviours and environments, and is affected by them. A central premise of Bandura's theory is that we strive for a sense of agency, or the belief that we can influence important events in our lives. Self-efficacy: the subjective perception of our ability to accomplish a task successfully. To determine our ability, we monitor our progress towards our goals. Self-regulation: When we experience a lack of progress, we are likely to try and to regulate our goal pursuit. Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic and humanistic approaches While biological and social cognitive theories are attentive to the internal processes of physiology or cognition, psychodynamic and humanistic perspectives view motivation within a broader context of personality development. Psychodynamic theory broadly proposes that people are not always conscious of the factors that may be motivating their behaviour. Humanistic approaches adopt a holistic approach to the study of human behaviour and pay particular attention to notions of creativity, free will and human potential. Three approaches that have received most attention in this domain are Maslow's (1954) hierarchy of needs, Deci and Ryan's (1985, 2002) Self-Determination Theory, and Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi's (2000) proposition for a movement of positive psychology. Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic approach Unconscious motives can affect how we behave. Freud (1923) emphasised sexual and aggressive motives à dual instinct model Poor research support BUT… Freud’s work stimulated many modern theorists to emphasise other motives for behaviour, like self-esteem and social belonging. Modern psychodynamic theorists continue to emphasize that, together with conscious mental processes, unconscious motives may motivate us to act in certain ways. Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Needs Hierarchy: a progression containing deficiency needs at the bottom and uniquely human growth needs at the top. Deficiency needs: are concerned with basic survival and include physiological needs (such as the need for food, sex, and sleep) and safety needs (such as the need for security and freedom from danger). Growth needs: are more psychological and are associated with realizing an individual’s full potential and needing to ‘self-actualize’. These needs are achieved more through intellectual and creative behavior. After our basic physiological needs are satisfied, we focus on our need for safety and security. Once that is met, we then attend to needs at the next higher level, and so on. If situations change and lower-level needs are no longer met, we refocus our attention on them until they are satisfied. Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Physiological needs: biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep. Safety needs: not only physical security, but also emotional security, financial security (e.g., employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health, and wellbeing (e.g., safety against accidents and injury). Love and belongingness needs: refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group. Includes love, but also friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection… Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Esteem needs: sense of self-worth and self-esteem, but also respect from others and reputation. Cognitive needs: successful deployment and development of one’s cognitive abilities: knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. Meeting these needs facilitates personal growth, comprehension, and a deeper understanding of life and its complexities. Aesthetic needs: appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. Fulfilling these needs leads to a deeper sense of satisfaction and harmony in life, as individuals seek environments and experiences that are pleasing and resonant with their sense of beauty, not only physical beauty but also the emotional and psychological satisfaction derived from experiencing order and elegance. Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Self-Actualization: the need to fulfil our potential. Self-actualization is the ultimate human motive; it motivates us to perfect ourselves mentally, artistically, emotionally and socially, to explore activities for their intrinsic satisfaction rather than to gain esteem and belongingness, and to live deep and meaningful lives dedicated to the betterment of all people, not just ourselves. Most people become so focused on attaining lower needs that they spend little time on self-actualization. Self-Transcendence: moving beyond a focus on the self and committing oneself to the welfare of others, spiritual fulfilment and commitment to a cause higher than oneself. Humanistic approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) Firstly, Maslow argued that survival needs must be satisfied before the individual can satisfy the higher needs. BUT… Advancing in his theory, Maslow pointed out that the hierarchy of needs “is not nearly as rigid” as he may have implied in his earlier description and it doesn't follow a strict linear progression: individuals can feel various needs at the same time or shift between levels; the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences; most behaviour is multi-motivated and “any behaviour tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them”. Humanistic approach: McClelland's Human Motivation Theory (1961) David McClelland built on Maslow’s work his «Learned Needs Theory». He identified three motivators that he believed we all have: need for achievement, need for affiliation need for power. Humanistic approach: McClelland's Human Motivation Theory (1961) We all have this three motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This dominant motivator is largely dependent on our culture and life experiences. People will have different characteristics depending on the dominant trait. Humanistic approach: Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002) SDT assumes that the human organism has evolved to be inherently active, intrinsically motivated, and oriented toward developing naturally through integrative processes. Focuses on three fundamental psychological needs that are essential for a healthy development (à strongly supported by research): Competence: reflects the human desire to master new challenges and to perfect skills. These need motivates much exploratory and growth-inducing human behaviour. In its purest form, the behaviour becomes its own reward, so that it is intrinsically motivated. Autonomy: a need to achieve greater freedom and regulation by the self, rather than by external forces. It leads to greater self-integration, feelings of personal control and self-actualization. Relatedness: a need to form meaningful bonds with others. It may seems in contrast with autonomy, but in the real truth they complement each other. When true relatedness is achieved, people often feel freer to be themselves. Humanistic approach: Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002)  Humanistic approach: Positive psychology Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal function of people, groups and institutions. It is the study of strength and virtue, interested in what it means to function well and lead the “good life”. “If psychologists wish to improve the human condition, it is not enough to help those who suffer. The majority of 'normal' people also need examples and advice to reach a richer and more fulfilling existence.” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalvi, 2000, p. 10)  Humanistic approach: Positive psychology “Optimal” subjective well-being promotes effective functioning. Flow: state of total involvement in an activity that requires optimal concentration. Flow captures the highest form of intrinsic motivation, where one surrenders completely to the moment, and is absorbed and fulfilled by the experience of merging action and awareness. Flow arises when people act at the peak of their capacity, where challenges are balanced by skills.