Motivation Overview and Perspectives

Motivation Overview

• Motivation is a condition that energizes behavior and influences direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior.
• A goal is a cognitive representation of a desired state.
• Subjectively, motivation is experienced as conscious desire.

Motivation Arises From Two Sources

• Internal drive factors (e.g., hunger)
• External incentive factors (e.g., food)

Incentives

• Primary reinforcers act as rewards independently of prior experience.
• Secondary reinforcers act as rewards through learning about their relationship to other events.

Incentive Motivation & Reward

• Incentive motivation is associated with affect (pleasure and displeasure).
• Most incentives are learned.
• Incentive salience connects objects/events to anticipated pleasure.
• Wanting is the anticipation of pleasure (e.g., dopamine system).
• Liking is the actual pleasure experienced in the moment.

Perspectives on Motivation: Homeostasis and Drives

• Homeostasis is a state of internal physiological equilibrium.
• The body strives to maintain homeostasis at a set point (fixed level).
• Homeostasis requires a sensory mechanism to measure internal state and detect changes.
• A control center receives sensory information and compares it to the set point.
• A response activates systems to reduce the difference between the internal state and the set point.

Body Temperature & Homeostasis

• Physiological responses (e.g., sweating, shivering) and behavioral responses (e.g., finding shade, removing clothing) help maintain body temperature.
• Neurons in various brain parts (especially the hypothalamus) detect changes and trigger physiological & behavioral responses.

Thirst as a Homeostatic Process

• Two types of fluid reservoirs in the body: intracellular and extracellular.
• Thirst occurs when loss of extracellular fluid is detected by blood pressure sensors and neurons in veins/organs responding to reduced pressure.
• Loss of intracellular fluid triggers osmotic sensors in the hypothalamus.

Drive Reduction Theory

• Drives are states of internal tension.
• They motivate behavior to reduce tension (e.g., hunger, thirst).
• Hull (1943) proposed that behaviors reducing drives are reinforced.
• Over time, animals learn which behaviors best reduce certain drives.

Perspective on Motivation: Instinct Theories

• Instinct is a fixed action pattern.
• It's an inherited characteristic common to all members of a species.
• An instinct automatically produces a specific response to a particular stimulus (e.g., suckling, crying).

Perspective on Motivation: Approach and Avoidance Motivation

• Approach-avoidance theories consider a person's environment and context.
• Optimal arousal theory (Hebb, 1955) proposes optimal levels of stimulation for a given environment.
• Moderate stimulation is best; too little or too much is undesirable.
• Behavioural Activation System (BAS) is roused by signals of potential reward.
• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) responds to signals of potential pain/punishment.

Perspective on Motivation: Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation

• Social cognitive theories explain behavior by interactions between cognition and social environment.
• Incentives, expectancies, and internal/external motivation are key concepts.
• Drive theory views drives as physiological forces, while incentives are environmental stimuli that pull organisms towards goals.

Expectancy x Value Theory

• Motivation is the product of expectancy (believing behavior will lead to a goal) multiplied by the incentive value (a person's evaluation of the goal).

Two Kinds of Motivation

• Extrinsic motivation: performing an activity to obtain external reward or avoid punishment.
• Intrinsic motivation: performing an activity for its inherent satisfaction.

Social Cognitive Theories on Motivation: Self-Efficacy

• Self-efficacy is the subjective perception of one's ability to successfully perform a task.
• Self-regulation occurs when monitoring progress.
• Lack of progress triggers adjustment efforts in goal pursuit.

Perspectives on Motivation: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches

• Psychodynamic theory suggests that behavior is often driven by unconscious motives.
• Humanistic approaches emphasize creativity, free will, and human potential.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• A progression of needs, with deficiency needs at the bottom and growth needs at the top.
• Deficiency needs (physiological, safety, belonging, esteem) must be met before pursuing higher growth needs.
• Examples of higher needs include cognitive, aesthetic, and self-actualization needs.

McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

• He proposed that the need for achievement, affiliation, and power are learned motivators.

Self-Determination Theory

• Assumes humans are inherently active, intrinsically motivated, and oriented toward development.
• Three fundamental psychological needs support healthy development: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Humanistic approach: Positive psychology

• Positive psychology studies conditions and processes that enhance functioning. It examines well-being, strengths, and virtues to lead a fulfilling life.
• Optimal subjective well-being facilitates effective functioning.
• Flow state describes total involvement in an activity optimized by challenges and skills.

Explore the fundamental concepts of motivation, including internal drive factors and external incentives. This quiz delves into the dynamics of incentive motivation, reward systems, and the significance of homeostasis in understanding human behavior. Test your knowledge on how motivation energizes behavior towards goal attainment.