Motivation and Reward PDF

‭ otivation and Reward‬ M ‭Social Support‬ ‭‬ ‭Social support: The degree to which people believe they can turn to other people for‬ ‭information, help, advice, or comfort.‬ ‭‬ ‭People who report having a larger and more supportive social network have:‬...

‭ otivation and Reward‬ M ‭Social Support‬ ‭‬ ‭Social support: The degree to which people believe they can turn to other people for‬ ‭information, help, advice, or comfort.‬ ‭‬ ‭People who report having a larger and more supportive social network have:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Lower blood pressure‬ ‭○‬ ‭Fewer stress hormones‬ ‭○‬ ‭Stronger immune systems‬ ‭○‬ ‭A decreased likelihood of depression‬ ‭○‬ ‭Increased lifespans‬ ‭Motivation and Reward‬ ‭‬ ‭Broadly, why do we do what we do?‬ ‭‬ ‭Drives motivate us towards rewards.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Drives: A state of internal bodily tension, such as hunger, thirst, or the need‬ ‭for sleep‬ ‭○‬ ‭Motivate: A force that leads an individual to behave in a particular way‬ ‭○‬ ‭Rewards: A positive, pleasurable outcome‬ ‭‬ ‭Homeostasis‬ ‭○‬ ‭The body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium through various forms of‬ ‭self-regulation‬ ‭Mammalian Drives for Survival and Reproduction‬ ‭‬ ‭Regulatory drives‬ ‭○‬ ‭Towards homeostasis, e.g., hunger, thirst‬ ‭‬ ‭Non-regulatory drives‬ ‭○‬ ‭Safety drives, e.g., shelter‬ ‭○‬ ‭Reproductive drives, e.g.,‬ ‭○‬ ‭care/protection of offspring, sex‬ ‭○‬ ‭Social drives, e.g., respect, favors, manners‬ ‭○‬ ‭Educative drives, e.g., exploration‬ ‭‬ ‭Other Drives‬ ‭○‬ ‭Artificial drives, e.g., gambling, addictive substances‬ ‭○‬ ‭Aesthetic drives, e.g., art, music, literature, dance‬ ‭Reward Mechanisms‬ ‭‬ ‭Endorphins‬ ‭○‬ ‭Are critical for “liking” a reward (receiving a pleasurable stimulus)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Opiates bind to endorphin receptor sites‬ ‭‬ ‭Dopamine‬ ‭○‬ ‭Is critical for “wanting” (anticipating) a reward‬ ‭○‬ ‭Boosts associative learning between stimuli and rewards, including addictive‬ ‭substances and behaviors‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Released by midbrain neurons terminating in the nucleus accumbens‬ ○ ‭Reward Mechanisms‬ ‭‬ ‭Liking: the subjective feeling of pleasure or satisfaction that occurs when one‬ ‭receives a reward‬ ‭‬ ‭Wanting: the desire to obtain a reward/anticipation of receiving a reward‬ ‭‬ ‭Reinforcement: the effects that rewards have in promoting learning‬ ‭Reward Circuitry‬ ‭Hierarchy of Needs‬ ‭‬ ‭Maslow’s theory of a “hierarchy of needs” suggests that higher-level‬ ‭motives (e.g., esteem, self-actualization) only shape our behavior‬ ‭once lower-level motives (e.g., safety) are fulfilled.‬ ‭Drugs vs. Neurotransmitters‬ ‭‬ ‭Agonists: mimic/enhance the action of a NT‬ ‭‬ ‭Antagonists: oppose/inhibit the action of the NT‬ ‭‬ ‭Example: Acetylcholine, a NT between motor neurons and voluntary muscles‬ ‭○‬ ‭Nicotine is an Ach agonist‬ ‭‬ ‭Curare is an Ach antagonist‬ ‭Synaptic Transmission‬ ‭How do drugs influence activity at a synapse?‬ ‭1) Act on presynaptic neuron (facilitating or inhibiting the synthesis or release of the NT)‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex. Amphetamines‬ ‭2) Act in synaptic cleft (facilitating or inhibiting reuptake or enzyme deactivation)‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex. Cocaine‬  ‭ ) Act on the post-synaptic binding sites (producing same effect or blocking NT from‬ 3 ‭producing normal effect)‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex. Opiates‬ ‭Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation‬ ‭‬ ‭INTRINSIC‬ ‭○‬ ‭An incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives from pleasure in the‬ ‭activity itself (e.g., a genuine interest in a subject studied) rather than‬ ‭because of any external benefits that might be obtained (e.g., money, course‬ ‭credits)‬ ‭‬ ‭EXTRINSIC‬ ‭○‬ ‭An external incentive to engage in a specific activity, especially motivation‬ ‭arising from the expectation of punishment or reward (e.g., completing a‬ ‭disliked chore in exchange for payment)‬ ‭ rom Instincts to Drives: Understanding Human Motivation‬ F ‭Introduction to Motives‬ ‭Motives are internal forces that move us to act in certain ways. They explain why we don't‬ ‭remain idle and why we engage in various activities.‬ ‭Early Theories of Motivation‬ ‭1. Instinct Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Proposed by early psychologists like William James and William McDougall‬ ‭‬ ‭Defined instincts as genetically endowed tendencies to behave in particular ways‬ ‭‬ ‭McDougall proposed 13 instincts, including parenting, food seeking, and curiosity‬ ‭‬ ‭Criticism: Different theorists proposed vastly different lists of instincts (over 5,000‬ ‭counted)‬ ‭2. Drive Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Based on Claude Bernard's concept of internal environment‬ ‭‬ ‭Emphasizes the importance of maintaining a consistent internal state (homeostasis)‬ ‭‬ ‭Walter Cannon introduced the term "homeostasis"‬ ‭‬ ‭Drives are internal states of tension that motivate behavior to restore equilibrium‬ ‭Key Concepts‬ ‭ omeostasis‬ H ‭The process of maintaining internal equilibrium despite external changes. It involves:‬ ‭‬ ‭Sensing aspects of the internal environment‬ ‭‬ ‭Brain control centers producing adjustments‬ ‭‬ ‭Actions or behaviors to keep the internal environment within desired ranges‬ ‭Drive-Reduction Theory‬ ‭Explains motivation as a process of reducing drives to return the body to equilibrium.‬ ‭Conclusion‬ ‭While instinct theory proved inadequate, drive theory provided a more comprehensive‬ ‭framework for understanding motivation. However, as we'll explore in later sections, even‬ ‭drive theory doesn't fully account for the complexity of human motivation.‬ ‭The Avoidance of Pain: An Overview‬ ‭1. The Purpose and Nature of Pain‬ ‭‬ ‭Pain as a motivator for action‬ ‭‬ ‭The pain matrix: A common brain network for various types of pain‬ ‭‬ ‭Specific and general motivational roles of pain‬ ‭2. Pain Avoidance vs. Pain-Seeking Behaviors‬ ‭‬ ‭Common pain avoidance behaviors‬ ‭‬ ‭Instances of pain-seeking behaviors‬ ‭‬ ‭Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)‬ ‭3. Understanding Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI)‬ ‭‬ ‭Definition and examples of NSSI‬ ‭‬ ‭Prevalence and demographics‬ ‭‬ ‭Media representation and public awareness‬ ‭4. The Escape-from-Self Hypothesis‬ ‭‬ ‭Explanation of the hypothesis‬ ‭‬ ‭How NSSI may function to decrease overall suffering‬ ‭5. Key Points to Consider‬ ‭‬ ‭The complex relationship between pain and behavior‬ ‭‬ ‭The importance of understanding seemingly counterintuitive behaviors‬ ‭‬ ‭The need for further research and treatment options for NSSI‬ ‭This organization provides a structured overview of the main topics discussed in the text,‬ ‭including the nature of pain, pain-related behaviors, the phenomenon of NSSI, and theories‬ ‭explaining seemingly paradoxical pain-seeking behaviors.‬ ‭The Pursuit of Pleasure: Key Concepts‬ ‭1. Purpose of Pleasure‬ ‭Pleasure serves as a motivator for positive behaviors and experiences, complementing pain‬ ‭avoidance.‬ ‭2. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards‬ ‭‬ ‭Intrinsic rewards: Inherent in the activity itself (e.g., playing basketball for fun)‬ ‭‬ ‭Extrinsic rewards: External to the activity (e.g., getting paid for mowing the lawn)‬ ‭3. Pleasure vs. Pain‬ ‭Unlike pain, pleasure involves distinct processes for anticipation (wanting) and receipt‬ ‭(liking).‬ ‭4. Brain Bases of Reward‬  ‭‬ E ‭ arly research: Electrical stimulation of rat brains (Olds & Milner, 1954)‬ ‭‬ ‭Modern neuroimaging: Confirmed early findings and revealed distinct brain regions‬ ‭for wanting and liking‬ ‭5. Neuroimaging Studies‬ ‭Knutson et al. (2001) used fMRI to demonstrate the dissociation between reward‬ ‭anticipation and delivery in humans.‬ ‭6. Key Findings‬ ‭Different brain regions are associated with:‬ ‭‬ ‭Anticipation of reward (wanting)‬ ‭‬ ‭Receipt of reward (liking)‬ ‭This organization highlights the main points discussed in the text while maintaining its‬ ‭original content and depth.‬ ‭ he Motive to Belong: Understanding Our Need for Connection‬ T ‭1. Introduction to the Motive to Belong‬ ‭The desire to belong, have friends, and fit in is universal. We actively seek and maintain‬ ‭friendships, and feel upset when relationships end.‬ ‭2. Importance of Belonging‬ ‭‬ ‭Influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviors‬ ‭‬ ‭Affects choices in clothing, food, and even political opinions‬ ‭‬ ‭Shapes how we interact with others and perceive ourselves‬ ‭3. Psychological Impact of Belonging‬ ‭‬ ‭Loneliness can lead to depression‬ ‭‬ ‭Perception of social isolation matters more than objective measures‬ ‭‬ ‭Social interaction predicts positive emotions‬ ‭4. Physical Health Consequences‬ ‭‬ ‭Loneliness increases risk of cardiovascular problems‬ ‭‬ ‭Can lead to early mortality‬ ‭5. Benefits of Social Connection‬ ‭‬ ‭Reduces feelings of loneliness and isolation‬ ‭‬ ‭Increases happiness and sense of belonging‬ ‭‬ ‭Provides tangible support (e.g., practical help, emotional support)‬ ‭6. Modern Forms of Connection: Social Media‬ ‭‬ ‭New ways to build and maintain connections‬ ‭‬ ‭High usage rates, especially among younger adults‬ ‭‬ ‭Benefits: increased communication, enhanced learning, better access to information‬ ‭‬ ‭Potential downsides: "Facebook depression," cyberbullying‬ ‭Conclusion‬ ‭Our connections with others provide psychological benefits, reduce loneliness, increase‬ ‭happiness, and offer both practical and emotional support, giving our lives texture and‬ ‭meaning.‬ ‭The Motive to Achieve: An Overview‬ ‭1. Understanding Achievement Motivation‬ ‭The motive to achieve goes beyond basic needs and has two aspects:‬ ‭‬ ‭Desire for success (approach motivation)‬ ‭‬ ‭Fear of failure (avoidance motivation)‬ ‭ hese aspects are independent and operate differently.‬ T ‭2. Performance vs. Mastery Orientation‬ ‭Two main orientations in school contexts:‬ ‭‬ ‭Performance orientation: Focus on‬ ‭looking smart or avoiding looking‬ ‭stupid‬ ‭‬ ‭Mastery orientation: Focus on‬ ‭learning and improving‬ ‭Mastery orientation is associated with‬ ‭higher engagement and resilience in face of‬ ‭challenges.‬ ‭3. Fixed vs. Growth Mindset‬ ‭Fundamental assumptions about abilities:‬ ‭‬ ‭Fixed mindset: Abilities are relatively unchangeable‬ ‭‬ ‭Growth mindset: Abilities can change and grow with experience‬ ‭Mindsets shape motivations and behaviors, leading to different outcomes.‬ ‭4. Impact of Mindsets on Behavior‬ ‭Fixed mindset:‬ ‭‬ ‭Goal: Looking smart‬ ‭‬ ‭Behavior: Avoid challenges, feel helpless after setbacks‬ ‭Growth mindset:‬ ‭‬ ‭Goal: Mastering new knowledge and skills‬ ‭‬ ‭Behavior: Seek challenges, increase effort after setbacks‬ ‭5. Cultivating Intelligence‬ ‭Research shows:‬ ‭‬ ‭Teaching about brain plasticity can change mindsets‬ ‭‬ ‭Believing in the ability to grow intelligence can improve academic performance‬ ‭Conclusion: A powerful way to cultivate intelligence is to believe it can grow.‬ ‭Organizing Motives: Key Concepts‬ ‭1. Hierarchical Organization of Motives‬ ‭Motives are often viewed as hierarchically organized, with some considered "lower" and‬ ‭others "higher".‬ ‭2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs‬ ‭‬ ‭Physiological needs (lowest)‬ ‭‬ ‭Safety needs‬ ‭‬ ‭Belonging needs‬ ‭‬ ‭Esteem needs‬ ‭‬ ‭Self-actualization‬ ‭‬ ‭Self-transcendence (highest)‬ ‭Maslow's theory suggests that lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs become‬ ‭active.‬ ‭3. Criticisms of Maslow's Hierarchy‬ ‭‬ ‭Limited empirical support‬ ‭‬ ‭Exceptions exist (e.g., starving artists, martyrs)‬ ‭‬ ‭Cultural variations in motive ordering‬ ‭4. Dweck's Approach to Psychological Motives‬ ‭Basic Needs:‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for acceptance‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for predictability‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for competence‬ ‭Compound Needs:‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for trust (acceptance + predictability)‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for control (predictability + competence)‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for self-esteem/status (acceptance + competence)‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for self-coherence‬ ‭5. Relationship Between Needs and Goals‬ ‭According to Dweck, needs provide energy for behavior, while goals give behavior its‬ ‭specific direction.‬ ‭6. Universal Needs vs. Situational Goals‬ ‭While needs (like acceptance) are universal, the goals they generate are tailored to specific‬ ‭situations.‬ ‭Artificial Neurotransmission: Psychoactive Drugs and Addiction‬ ‭Introduction to Psychoactive Drugs‬ ‭‬ ‭Definition and prevalence of psychoactive drugs‬ ‭‬ ‭Common examples: caffeine, nicotine, alcohol‬ ‭Endorphins and Opioids‬ ‭‬ ‭Endorphins as natural opioids‬ ‭‬ ‭Opioids as pain relievers‬ ‭‬ ‭Increase in opioid prescriptions and related overdose deaths‬ ‭The Addictive Nature of Opioids‬ ‭‬ ‭Connection between pain and pleasure in the brain‬ ‭‬ ‭Role of dopamine in the brain's reward system‬ ‭‬ ‭Brain changes caused by chronic opioid use‬ ‭Opioid Tolerance and Dependence‬ ‭‬ ‭Development of tolerance requiring higher doses‬ ‭‬ ‭Physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms‬ ‭‬ ‭Shift from seeking pleasure to avoiding discomfort‬ ‭Mechanism of Action: Agonists and Antagonists‬ ‭‬ ‭Opioids as agonists mimicking endorphins‬ ‭‬ ‭Naloxone as an antagonist for overdose treatment‬ ‭‬ ‭Limitations of antagonists in addiction treatment‬ ‭Addiction Treatment Approaches‬ ‭‬ ‭Medication-assisted therapies: methadone and buprenorphine‬ ‭‬ ‭Management of withdrawal symptoms‬ ‭‬ ‭Challenges in widespread adoption of replacement therapies‬ ‭Individual Differences in Pain and Addiction‬ ‭‬ ‭Variability in pain experiences and drug responses‬ ‭‬ ‭Gender differences in pain perception and addiction susceptibility‬ ‭‬ ‭Need for personalized approaches to pain management and addiction treatment‬