Learning Module in Microbiology (Bio103) PDF

9/8/2020 Marie Johanna Cuadra Sheila L. Dagondon Lady Jane C. Fanuncio Sasha Anne L. Valdez 1  9/8/2020 OUTLINE FOR MODULE 1: I. Module Objectives II. Definition of Microbiology III. Branches...

9/8/2020 Marie Johanna Cuadra Sheila L. Dagondon Lady Jane C. Fanuncio Sasha Anne L. Valdez 1  9/8/2020 OUTLINE FOR MODULE 1: I. Module Objectives II. Definition of Microbiology III. Branches of Microbiology IV. Importance/ Applications of Microbiology V. Historical Perspectives VI. History-altering Microbes 2  9/8/2020 Module 1: Introduction to Microbiology Module Objectives: 1. Define Microbiology. 2. What are the branches of Microbiology? 3. List several ways in which microbes affect our lives. 4. Discuss the important events and personalities in the history and development of microbiology. 5. Recognize the significance and applications of the theory of spontaneous generation and the germ theory of disease as they relate to general and medical microbiology. 6. Describe the key experiments that disproved spontaneous generation. 3  9/8/2020 What is Microbiology? is the study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. study of microbes or microorganisms – Microbes, or microorganisms are minute living things that are usually unable to be viewed with the naked eye. discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents. 4  9/8/2020 is the study of microorganisms usually less than 1mm in diameter which requires some form of magnification to be seen clearly. – Examples: Bacteria Fungi Archae Algae Protozoa Viruses https://water-detective.net/articles/the-unseen-life-of-rivers- mysterious-aquatic-microorganisms/ 5  9/8/2020 https://stemplanet.shoplineapp.com/products /dk-the-bacteria-book 6  9/8/2020 Scale of Microbes https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiolo gy/chapter/types-of-microorganisms/ 7  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/ebrockmann/chap ter-3-tools-of-the-laboratory-e-mail 8  9/8/2020 BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY Microorganism are ubiquitous in nature. These microorganisms has a great effect on other life forms like human beings, plants and animals in several ways. Their effects to the environment may be desirable or undesirable. They show wide range of activity and diversity. 9  9/8/2020 https://gpatindia.com/scope-importance-and- branches-of-microbiologymcqs-pci-unit-i- notes-microbiology/ 10  9/8/2020 Pure Microbiology: Microbial taxonomy - is a means by which microorganisms can be grouped together. Organisms having similarities with respect to the criteria used are in the same group, and are separated from the other groups of microorganisms that have different characteristics. Taxonomy is the science of biological classification. Bacteriology – study of bacteria Archaelogy is NOT the study of archae. No! No! No! No! Phycology/algology - the study of algae Mycology – study of fungi Protozoology – study of protozoa Parasitology – study of parasites Virology –study of viruses 11  9/8/2020 Microbial Metabolism – the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients (e.g. carbon) it needs to live and reproduce. Microbial Genetics - the study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of molecular biology. Microbial Ecology - the relationship between microorganisms and their environment. Immunology – study immune response of humans to microorganisms 12  9/8/2020 Applied Microbiology: Medical Microbiology - the study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in human illness. Pharmaceutical microbiology - the study of microorganisms that are related to the production of antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins, vaccines, and other pharmaceutical products and that cause pharmaceutical contamination and spoil. Industrial microbiology - the exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes. Examples include industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment. Closely linked to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes brewing. Microbial biotechnology - the manipulation of microorganisms at the genetic and molecular level to generate useful products. 13  9/8/2020 Food microbiology - the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to produce foods (e.g. by fermentation). Agricultural microbiology -the study of agriculturally relevant microorganisms. Water microbiology (or aquatic microbiology) - The study of those microorganisms that are found in water. Aeromicrobiology (or air microbiology) -The study of airborne microorganisms. 14  9/8/2020 Environmental microbiology - the study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments. This field includes other branches of microbiology such as: Microbial ecology Microbially mediated nutrient cycling Geomicrobiology (studies the relation of microbes with some geological substances like formation of coal ,mineral and gas formation as well as recovery of minerals from low grade ores), Microbial diversity, Bioremediation (use of micro-organisms to clean air, water and soils). 15  9/8/2020 Other Fields: Astro microbiology - study of microorganisms in outer space Biological agent - study of those microorganisms which are being used in weapon industries. Nano microbiology - the study of those organisms on nano level. Predictive microbiology - the quantification of relations between controlling factors in foods and responses of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms using mathematical modelling 16  9/8/2020 Most decomposers are microbes https://slideplayer.com/slide/10 729225/ 17  9/8/2020 Importance/ Applications Agriculture/ Aquaculture Food processing Biogeochemical cycles Pest management Decomposition Waste management Pollution Prevention and Mitigation 18  9/8/2020 Example of an application of microorganisms that benefit society. https://www.slideshare.net/nadasami2/applic ations-of-bacteria-in-biotechnology 19  9/8/2020 Puerperal fever, are any bacterial infections of the female reproductive tract following childbirth or miscarriage. http://image3.slideserve.com/6599396/the-first- systematic-applications-of-microbiology-n.jpg 20  9/8/2020 https://centers.njit.edu/emb/sites/emb/files/s tyles/690wideimage/public/emb- home.png?itok=deeFwLzR 21 9/8/2020 22  9/8/2020 Historical Perspectives MICROBIOLOGY DISCOVERY TRANSITION GOLDEN MODERN ERA ERA ERA ERA 23  9/8/2020 DISCOVERY TRANSITION GOLDEN MODERN ERA ERA ERA ERA 24  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/UnniSreenivas/his tory-of-microbiology-81847038 25  9/8/2020 https://truthopia.wordpress.com/2009/01/27/i-science-c- theories-4-the-origin-of-life-a/ 26  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/JessTrillo/3-origin-of-life-edited3 27  9/8/2020 Rogen Bacon Disease is caused by a minute “SEED” or “GERM” (The germ theory of disease). https://alchetron.com/Roger-Bacon 28  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/sarah_jumali/2- history-of-microbiology 29  9/8/2020 https://twitter.com/helenashomar/status/106 0163433583337473 30  9/8/2020 ROBERT HOOKE 28 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 One of the most important discoveries of biology occurred in 1665, with the help of a crude microscope, when he stated that life’s smallest structural units were cells. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/lea https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/mus ding-figures/hooke-the-genius-whose-big- eum/hooke.html mistake-was-confronting-newton/ 31  9/8/2020 ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723 https://discoveries- project.weebly.com/anton-van- leeuwenhoek.html https://www.sapaviva.c om/antonie-van- leeuwenhoek/ First to observe bacteria, Robet Hooke was the first to observe a microorganism. His single-lens magnified 50- 300X magnification Between 1674-1723 he wrote series of papers describing his observations of bacteria, algae, protozoa, and fungi (Animalcules) http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/antoni/vlen.htm 32  9/8/2020 https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/230841/view /leeuwenhoek-s-microscope https://patrickmurfin.blogspot.com/2015/09/the-dutchmans- gizmo-and-invisible.html ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK’S MICROSCOPE https://www.vox.com/2016/8/9/12405306/antoni-van- leeuwenhoek 33  9/8/2020 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION/ABIOGENESIS Early belief that some forms of life could arise from “vital forces” present in nonliving or decomposing matter, abiogenesis. In other words, organisms can arise form non-living matter. https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/spontaneous- generation-e746823b-8e59-40f6-84a4-b2d58a309268 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/3-.-1-Spontaneous- Generation- Learning/3490500fba853844f2edd7c4bcc56f0383955f82/figure/12 34  9/8/2020 t https://pediaa.com/differen ce-between-abiogenesis- and-biogenesis/ 35  9/8/2020 DISCOVERY TRANSITION GOLDEN MODERN ERA ERA ERA ERA 36  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/UnniSreenivas/his tory-of-microbiology-81847038 37  9/8/2020 Challenging the Spontaneous Generation Theory: Francisco Redi https://www.thoughtco.com/biography-of- (18 February 1626- 1 March 1697) francesco-redi-4126774 Louis Joblot http://brahmanandcollege.org.in/pg_bio (9 August 1645 – 27 April 1723) technology/Lecture1HistoryandIntroduct ion.pdf Lazzaro Spallanzani https://www.sciencephoto.co m/media/87400/view/lazzaro (12 January 1729 – 11 February 1799) -spallanzani-italian-biologist 38  9/8/2020 Redi's experiment simply but effectively demonstrates that life is necessary to Francesco Redi (1668) placed fresh produce life. Redi expressed this in his meat in open containers [left]: as famous dictum as "Omne vivum ex vivo" expected, the rotting meat attracted ("All life comes from life"). flies, and the meat was soon swarming with maggots, which hatched into flies. (1745) When the jars were covered so that flies could not get in [middle], no maggots were produced. To answer the objection that the cover cut off fresh air necessary for spontaneous generation, Redi covered the jars with porous gauze [right] instead of an air-tight cover. Flies were attracted to the smell of the rotting meat, clustered on the gauze, which was soon swarming with maggots, but the meat itself remained free of maggots. Thus flies are necessary to produce flies: they do not arise spontaneously from rotting https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/4270_Redi_experiment.h tml meat. 39  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/RakeshPrasadSah/historical-introduction- to-microbiology-by-dr-rakesh-prasad-sah-123767960 40  9/8/2020 https://en.wikipe (10 September 1713 – 30 December 1781) dia.org/wiki/John _Needham (1745) https://slideplayer.com/slide/6574281/ His experiments were later challenged and repeated by Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian scientist. Using a slightly different protocol (with a longer boiling time), Spallanzani did not have any microbes grow in his sealed flasks, contradicting Needham's findings. 41  9/8/2020 Lazzaro Spallanzani's Experiment proved microorganisms could be killed by boiling. He believed microbes move through the air and could be killed by boiling. Spallanzani filled 4 flasks with a broth. One flask was left opened, one flask was sealed, one flask was boiled and left open, and one flask was boiled and sealed. The first flask was left open and turned cloudy, and microbes were found. flask two remained sealed and again microbes were found and the broth was cloudy. Flask three again the same thing happened. However in flask four the broth was not cloudy and no microbes were found. This proved to Lazzaro that microbes do not form out of nowhere. If microbes formed out of nowhere then all flasks would have microbes. Critics of Spallanzani said he killed the life force that was required for spontaneous generation. https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/molecular-genetics/the- This experiment paved the way for theory-of-biogenesis/ research later done by Louis Pasteur. 42  9/8/2020 Some Early Observations in Microbiology INVESTIGATOR TIME FRAME OBSERVATIONS/CONCLUSIONS Aristotle 4th century Living things do not need parents; spontaneous generation B.C. apparently occurs Girolamo Francostoro Mid-1500s “Contagion” passes among individuals, objects, and air Kircher Mid-1600s “Microscopic worms” are present in blood of plague victims Redi Mid-1600s Fly larvae arise by spontaneous generation Van Leewenhoek Late 1600s Microscopic organisms are present in numerous environments Fabricius Early 1700s Fungi cause plant disease Joblot Early 1700s Various forms of protozoa exist Needham Mid-1700s Microorganisms in broth arise by spontaneous generation Spallanzini Mid-1700s Heat destroys microorganisms in broth Jenner Late 1700s Recoverers from cowpox do not contract smallbox Semmelweis Mid-1800s Chlorine disinfection prevents disease spread Snow Mid-1800s Water is involved in disease transmission Fundamentals of Microbiology. 1997. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company 43  9/8/2020 DISCOVERY TRANSITION GOLDEN MODERN ERA ERA ERA ERA 44  9/8/2020 Golden Age of Microbiology (1860 to 1900) Fermentation Pasteurization Disinfection Vaccines 45  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/UnniSreenivas/his tory-of-microbiology-81847038 46  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/UnniSreenivas/his tory-of-microbiology-81847038 47  9/8/2020 Disproving Spontaneous Generation Louis Pasteur https://www.britannic 27 December 1822- 28 September 1895 a.com/biography/Loui s-Pasteur https://www.britannica.c John Tyndall om/biography/John- Tyndall (2 August 1820 – 4 December 1893) 48  9/8/2020 Overview of Pasteur’s Experiment into Biogenesis: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standa rd-level/topic-1-cell-biology/15- the-origin-of- cells/biogenesis.html 49  9/8/2020 https://amoebamike.wordpress.com/2009 /10/06/spontaneous-generation-a-brief- history-of-disproving-it/ Pasteur performed several SPONTANEOUS GENERATION - the experiments to disprove supposed production of living organisms from nonliving matter, as inferred from spontaneous generation. the apparent appearance of life in some supposedly sterile environments. 50  9/8/2020 ~ Louis Pasteur https://thecreationclub.com/great-scientists-louis- pasteur-and-abiogenesis/ 51  9/8/2020 The notion that diseases could be spread by “seed-like entities” was first described in the 1500’s by Girolamo Fracastoro and were categorized based on how they could be transmitted. Later, Agostino Bassi in the early 1800’s conducted a series of experiments which demonstrated that a disease afflicting silkworms at the time was caused by a parasite. Bassi theorized that disease in humans and animals was also caused by microorganisms. Bassi’s work served to influence Louis Pasteur. Pasteur postulated the germ theory of disease, which embodies the principle that infectious diseases are due to the activities of microorganisms. https://microbenotes.com/the-germ-theory-of-disease/ 52  9/8/2020 Germ Theory of Disease It states that microorganisms known as pathogens or "germs" can lead to disease. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, other animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganism or even non-living pathogens that can cause disease, such as protists, fungi, viruses, prions, or viroids. 53  9/8/2020 Which scientist is credited with the germ theory of disease? Although Pasteur performed numerous experiments, his attempts to prove the germ theory were unsuccessful. A German scientist named Robert Koch provided the proof by cultivating the bacteria that cause anthrax apart from any other type of organism. Koch then injected pure cultures of anthrax bacteria into mice and showed that they invariably caused anthrax. These experiments proved the germ theory of disease. The procedures used by Koch came to be known as Koch’s postulates. 54  9/8/2020 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Postulates-of-germ- theory-by-Robert-Koch_tbl1_51524413 55  9/8/2020 https://biologydictionary.net/ge rm-theory/ 56  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/franklc/scope-and-history-of- microbiology 57  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/RakeshPrasadSah/historical- introduction-to-microbiology-by-dr-rakesh-prasad-sah- 123767960 58  9/8/2020 https://slideplayer.com/slide/17822349/ 59  9/8/2020 Some major milestones in Microbiology Microbiology: A Human Perspective. 2007. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. DATE EVENT DATE EVENT 1500 Egyptians ferment cereal grains to make 1853- John Snow demonstrates the epidemic spread 1854 of cholera through a water supply B.C. beer. contaminated with human sewage. A.D. Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro 1857 Louis Pasteur demonstrates that yeast can 1546 suggests that invisible organisms may cause degrade sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide disease. as they multiply. 1665 Robert Hooke publishes his discovery of 1861 Louis Pasteur publishes experiments that cells in cork and sees the first refute the theory of spontaneous generation. microorganism. 1676 Antony van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria 1864 Louis Pasteur develops pasteurization as a and protozoa using his homemade method to destroy unwanted organisms in microscope. wine. 1796 Edward Jenner introduces a vaccination 1867 Joseph Lister publishes the first work on procedure for smallpox. antiseptic surgery, beginning the trend toward modern aseptic techniques in medicine 1838- Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann 1876 Robert Kock demonstrates that anthrax is 1839 independently propose that all organisms caused by a bacterium. are composed of cells, the basic unit of life. 1840 J. Henle presents a clear exposition of the 1881 Robert Koch introduces the use of pure germ theory of disease. culture techniques for handling bacteria in the laboratory. 1847- Ignaz Semmelwels demonstrates the 1881 Walter and Fanny Hesse introduce agar-agar 1850 puerperal or childbed fever is a contagious as a solidifying gel for culture media. disease transmitted by physicians to their patients during childbirth. 60  9/8/2020 Some major milestones in Microbiology contd. Microbiology: A Human Perspective. 2007. McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. DATE EVENT DATE EVENT 1882 Koch identifies the causative agent of tuberculosis. 1948 Barbara McClintock demonstrates transposable elements in maize, and almost two decades later they are discovered in bacteria. 1884 Koch states Koch’s Postulates. 1953 James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins determine the structure of DNA. 1884 Elie Metchnikoff discovers phagocytic cells and 1957 D. Carlton Gajdusek demonstrates the slow infectious their role in engulfing bacteria. nature of the disease kuru, which is later shown to be caused by a prion. 1884 Christian Gram publishes a paper describing the 1970 Hamilton Smith reports the discovery of the first Gram stain. restriction enzyme. 1892 Dmitri Iwanowski discovers that tobacco-mosaic 1971 Theodor Diener demonstrates the fundamental disease is caused by a filterable agent- a virus. differences between viroids and viruses. 1908 Paul Erlich develops the drug salvarsan to treat 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen, using plasmids, are syphilis , thereby starting the use of chemotherapy the first to clone DNA. to treat diseases. 1911 F. Peyton Rous discovers that a virus can cause 1975 Cesar Milstein, Georges Kohler, and Niels Kai Jeme cancer in chickens. develop the technique for making monoclonal antibodies. 1928 Frederick Griffith discovers genetic 1976 Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus discover the transformation in bacteria, thereby raising a key cancer-causing gene, called oncogenes, and find that question in genetics: What chemical caused the such genes are in normal tissues. transformation? 1929 Alexander Fleming discovers and describes the 1977 Carl Woese classifies all organisms into three properties of the first antibiotic, penicillin. domains. 1944 Oswald Avery, Colin McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty 1980 A rare cancer in humans is shown to be caused by a demonstrate that Griffith’s transforming principle retrovirus is DNA. WHO declares eradication of small pox in the world. 61  9/8/2020 Role of Microorganisms in Disease 62  9/8/2020 Demonstrations that microorganisms cause disease Oliver Holmes (1773 - 1843) – showed that sepsis could be transmitted by hands of medical student and may cause disease – M. J. Berkeley (ca. 1845) – demonstrated that the Great Potato Blight of Ireland was caused by a Fungus Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) – showed that the pébrine disease of silkworms was caused by a protozoan parasite – developed other vaccines including those for chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies – “Father of bacteriology and immunology” 63  9/8/2020 https://globalbiodefense.com/ Smallpox 2019/09/30/why-do-we-need- a-new-smallpox-vaccine/ (430 BC? - 1979): Killed more than 300 million people worldwide in the 20th century alone, and most of the native inhabitants of the Americas. Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. Smallpox is caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. The deadlier form, V. major, has a mortality rate of 30–35%, while V. minor causes a milder form of disease called alastrim and kills ~1% of its victims. Long-term side-effects for survivors include the characteristic skin scars. Occasional side effects include blindness due to corneal ulcerations and infertility in male survivors. Smallpox killed an estimated 60 million Europeans, including five 64  9/8/2020 Smallpox The plague of Florence in 1348, as described in Boccaccio’s Decameron. Smallpox killed an estimated 60 million Europeans, including five reigning European monarchs, in the 18th century alone. Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one third of the survivors became blind. The last reported U.S. case came in 1949. In 1980, the World Health Assembly announced that the world was free of smallpox. 65  9/8/2020 Inoculation, the earliest form of vaccination and in this case referred to as variolation (to protect against the Variola virus), was introduced to Europe and North America in the 18th century. the procedure was commonly carried out by rubbing powdered smallpox scabs or fluid from pustules into superficial scratches made in a healthy individual’s skin. The patient would develop pustules identical to those caused by smallpox, but usually resulting in a less-severe disease. Variolation was not without risks however, as variolated persons could suffer from smallpox itself or become infected by another disease unintentionally transferred by the procedure such as syphilis. 66  9/8/2020 Edward Jenner (ca. 1798) Develop the first Vaccine and used a vaccination procedure to protect individuals from smallpox. Dr. Edward Jenner performing his first vaccination against smallpox on James Phipps, May 14, 1796, oil on canvas by Ernest Board. In 1757, one of the thousands of children treated by variolation was eight-year-old Edward Jenner. As a boy, Jenner had a strong interest in the sciences and nature, which led him to the study of medicine, surgery, and even zoology. He eventually settled in rural England, outside of London, and began to DEA Picture Library/Getty Images practice medicine. 67  9/8/2020 As part of his practice, Jenner performed variolation on his patients. In this rural setting he learned that dairymaids and other individuals who contracted cowpox, a minor infection marked by a few pustules, would not later contract smallpox. Jenner also observed that he could not successfully inoculate such persons with smallpox. Noting this connection, Jenner concluded that cowpox not only protected against smallpox but could also be transmitted from one person to another as a deliberate mechanism of protection. British satirist James Gillray 1802 cartoon showing cowpox vaccine being administered to frightened young women. https://www.vbivaccines.com/wire/edward- jenner-and-the-first-modern-vaccine/ 68  9/8/2020 Using material from her lesions, Jenner inoculated James Phipps. The child developed a mild fever and lost his appetite, but after ten days he was in good spirits. In July, Jenner inoculated the boy again, this time with fresh smallpox. No disease developed and Jenner concluded that protection was complete. Today we know that following infection by the cowpox virus, the infected person gained the ability to recognize the similar smallpox virus from its similarly shaped antigens and was able to defend against it more effectively. Jenner conducted an experiment in which he used scabs from the cowpox lesions on the arm of a dairy maid, https://brewminate.com/edward-jenner- Sarah Nelmes to create a small the-history-of-smallpox-and-vaccination/ pox vaccine (May 1796). 69  9/8/2020 Jenner continued to inoculate children with cowpox with similar results. He named this procedure variolae vaccinae (“smallpox of the cow”) which has been Anglicized and shortened today to “vaccination.” Although he did not know it at the time, Jenner had laid the groundwork for what would become live, attenuated vaccines. Today, some of the most common vaccines including measles, mumps, yellow fever, and others, use a similar approach. Viruses may be attenuated by passing the virus through a foreign host, including other live animals or embryonated eggs. The offspring of each virus gradually evolve and become less able to create a strong infection in humans. These weaker, less virulent viruses can be more easily fought off by the immune system, leading to long-term protection. Edward Jenner was not the first to try to conquer smallpox and the problem certainly did not end with him, but his work represented the first scientific attempt to control an infectious disease by the deliberate use of vaccination. 70  9/8/2020 https://www.thegeniusworks.com/2020/03/a-history-of-pandemics-from-the-antonine-plague-to-black-death-spanish-flu-and-covid-19-how- disease-has-shaped-society-and-healthcare/ 71  9/8/2020 https://www.thegeniusworks.com/2020/03/a-history-of-pandemics-from-the-antonine-plague-to- black-death-spanish-flu-and-covid-19-how-disease-has-shaped-society-and-healthcare/ 72  9/8/2020 https://www.thegeniusworks.com/2020/03/a-history-of-pandemics-from-the-antonine-plague-to-black-death-spanish-flu-and-covid-19-how- disease-has-shaped-society-and-healthcare/ 73  9/8/2020 Walter Hesse ( 1846-1911) Used Agar as a solidifying agent to harden media. Agar is extracted from seaweeds red algae. He also Worked with Robert Koch. https://alchetron.com/Walther-Hesse Julius Richard Petri ( 1852-1921) Used agar dish to provide a large area to grow. He was one of Robert Koch’s assistants. https://www.popsci.com/scie Hans Christian Gram ( 1853-1935) nce/article/2013-05/google- doodle-honors-birthday- julius-richard-petri-inventor- dish/ Staining method that demonstrate bacteria and distinguish between Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. https://alchetron.com/Hans-Christian-Gram 74  9/8/2020 Angelina Fanny Hesse, the Woman Who Introduced Agar to Microbiology https://microbialmenagerie.com/angelin a-hesse-agar-microbiology/ 75  9/8/2020 Development of Agar http://learn.chm.msu.edu/vibl/ content/differential/ Angelina Fanny Hesse (1850-1934) developed the use of Agar to grow microorganisms. – She was the wife of Walter Hesse who worked in Koch’s laboratory – Advantages of agar- It was not attacked by most bacteria. – Agar is better than gelatin because of its higher melting point (96°c) and solidifying (40–45°c) points. 76  9/8/2020 Development of Culture Media Why? – To enable the isolation of pure cultures (only one type of organism) Especially important during Koch’s period Gelatin not useful as solidifying agent (melts at >28 ºC and some bacteria hydrolyze it with enzymes) Fannie Hesse, the wife of one of Koch’s assistants, proposed using agar – Not digested by most bacteria – Melts at 100 ºC – Used today - ~2% in solid media 77  9/8/2020 Raymond Sabouraud ( 1890-1910) Develop culture media to study yeast and molds. https://alchetron.com/Raymon d-Sabouraud Dimitri Ivanovski (1892) Tobacco mosaic virus could pass through filters used to remove bacteria. https://peoplepill.com/people/dmitri-ivanovsky/ 78  9/8/2020 Joseph Lister (1827 - 1912) – developed a system of surgery designed to prevent microorganisms from entering wounds – phenol (Carbolic Acid) sprayed in air around surgical incision in 1867 (Antiseptic Surgery). – Decreased number of post-operative infections in patients – his published findings (1867) transformed the practice of surgery Lister, Joseph, c. 1890.From Six Great Scientists, by Margaret Avery, 1923 and https://www.britannica.com/biogra phy/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of- Lyme-Regis Joseph Lister directing the use of carbolic acid spray in one of his earliest antiseptic surgical operations, circa 1865. (https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/10/13/557367840/the-butchering-art- how-a-19th-century-physician-made-surgery-safer) 79  9/8/2020 PAUL EHRLICH https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medi cine/1908/ehrlich/biographical/ 1890’s Ehrlich proposed a theory of immunity in which antibodies were responsible for immunity (Antitoxin). He is known as the father of modern chemotherapy. He speculated about some “magic bullet” that would selectively find and destroy pathogens but not harm the host (Selective Toxicity). He also develop a staining procedure to identify tubercle bacilli. 80  9/8/2020 ALEXANDER FLEMING https://www.businessinsider.com/alexander-fleming- predicted-post-antibiotic-era-70-years-ago-2015-7 Penicillium notatum on agar medium (Science Source - Penicillium notatum) In 1928 Fleming observed that the growth of the bacterium Staphyloccus aureus was inhibited in the areas surrounding The colony of a mold that had contaminated a Petri plate. Penicillium notatum on microscope The mold was identified as Penicillium notatum, and its active (https://www.globalind compound was named penicillin (the first antibiotic). oorhealthnetwork.com/ penicillium) 81  9/8/2020 Discovery of Penicillin 1928: Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic. He observed that Penicillium fungus made an antibiotic, penicillin, that killed S. aureus. 1940s: Penicillin was tested clinically and mass produced and was available towards the end of World War II http://worldwithpenicillin.weebly.com/ Flemming discovered the antimicrobial properties of the mold Penicillium notatum in 1928 82  9/8/2020 Louis Pasteur – demonstrated that alcoholic fermentations were the result of microbial activity, – that some organisms could decrease alcohol yield and sour the product, and – that some fermentations were aerobic and some anaerobic; – he also developed the process of pasteurization to preserve wine during storage Selman Waksman (1940) Discovered a number of antibiotic such as Tetracycline and Streptomycin. https://www.nobelprize.org/pri zes/medicine/1952/waksman/ biographical/ 83  9/8/2020 DISCOVERY TRANSITION GOLDEN MODERN ERA ERA ERA ERA 84  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/UnniSreenivas/his tory-of-microbiology-81847038 85  9/8/2020 Some major milestones in Microbiology contd. Microbiology: A Human Perspective. 2007. McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. DATE EVENT DATE EVENT 1982 Stanley Prusiner isolates a protein from a slow 2000 The first new antibiotic in 35 years, Zyvox or disease infection and suggests that it might direct linezolid, is approved by the Food and Drug its own replication. He suggest the agent be termed Administration. a prion. 1982 Barry Marshall demonstrates that a bacterium , 2001 Bioterrorism in the form of mailed anthrax spores is Helicobacter pylori, causes ulcers. waged against the United States. 1982 First product of genetic engineering introduced- 2002 The genomes of the mosquito that transmits malaria, human insulin and the organism that causes it, are sequenced. 1983 Luc Montagnier of France and Robert Gallo of the 2003 Outbreak of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) that United States independently isolate and cause Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in characterize thehuman immunodeficiency virus Southeast Asia occurs. The epidemic affected 26 (HIV), the cause of AIDS. countries and resulted in more than 8000 cases. 1983 Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction 2004 Use of interfering RNA to control gene expression (PCR). and thereby treat a variety of diseases is actively studied. 1994 The Food and Drug Administration approves the 2005 Avian influenza considered a major threat in the first genetically engineered food for human world. consumption, a slow ripening tomato. 1995 The Food and Drug Administration approves the first protease inhibitor, a major weapon against the progression of AIDS. 1995 The first complete nucleotide sequence of a chromosome of a bacterium, Haemophilus influenzae 1997 The first complete nucleotide sequence of all of the chromosomes of a eukaryote (yeast) is reported. 1999 Ford Doolitle proposes that evolution proceeded through horizontal gene transfer between the three domains. 86  9/8/2020 https://cmr.asm.org/content/32/2/e00066- 18/figures-only 87  9/8/2020 ve https://za.pinterest.com/pin/71023180371479 6435/ 88  9/8/2020 Ruska (1938) – First Electron Microscope The electron microscope is capable of magnifying biological specimens up to one million times. These computer enhanced images of 1. smallpox, 2. herpes simplex, and 3. mumps are magnified, respectively, 150,000, 150,000 and 90,000 times. To study detail structures of viruses. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclop edia/viruses/ 89  9/8/2020 https://www.slideshare.net/alemubogale50/m icro-part-1 90  9/8/2020 James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/dna_checklist In 1953 Watson and Crick determined the structure of DNA. They used their research, together with the research of Franklin and Wilkins to determine the structure of the DNA molecule. https://www.livescience.com/37247-dna.html 91  9/8/2020 Important Early Discoveries George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum (ca. 1941) – studied the relationship between genes and enzymes using the bread mold, Neurospora – Precursor ornithine  citrulline  arginine – One gene, one polypeptide hypothesis Salvadore Luria and Max Delbruck (ca. 1943) – Demonstrated spontaneous gene mutations in bacteria (not directed by the environment) 92  9/8/2020 Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty (1944) – Following initial studies by Frederick Griffith (1928) they provided evidence that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was the genetic material and carried genetic information during transformation – Worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae (rough and smooth) 93  9/8/2020 In the 1970s new discoveries in microbiology led to the development of recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering 94  9/8/2020 http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_artt ext&pid=S1139-67092006000100001 95