MODULE 1 COGNITIVE PROCESSES.docx

**[MODULE 1 COGNITIVE PROCESSES]** **Cognition**: The mental activities associated with thought, knowledge, and memory. Basic Elements of Thought: Concepts, Propositions, Images. **[Visual Images]**: Mental pictures or representations of objects or events. Common examples of images include daydre...

**[MODULE 1 COGNITIVE PROCESSES]** **Cognition**: The mental activities associated with thought, knowledge, and memory. Basic Elements of Thought: Concepts, Propositions, Images. **[Visual Images]**: Mental pictures or representations of objects or events. Common examples of images include daydreaming and the mental visualization that occurs while reading a book. **[Propositions]**: Sentences that relate one concept to another and can stand as separate assertions. Thinking is not a passive process; it involves active manipulation of internal representations of the external world. Frequently, thinking involves relating one concept to another, or one feature of a concept to the entire concept. Because we possess highly developed language skills, these cognitive actions take the form of propositions. **[Concepts ]** Concepts are defined as cognitive abstractions which represent classes of things, events, or ideas. In general, concepts are seen as natural semantic categories which help to unite things, qualities, and occurrences on the basis of a similarity of characteristics. a concept is a mental representation of a category of things in the world. For example, the concept apple ties together all knowledge we have about apples in general, such as their typical shapes and sizes, as well as what they can be used for (e.g., eating or throwing). **Artificial concepts** can be clearly defined by a set of rules or properties. Thus, a tomato is a fruit because it possesses the properties established by botanists for this category. Similarly, as you learned in geometry, a figure can be considered to be a triangle only if it has three sides whose angles add to 180 degrees, and can be a square only if all four sides are of equal length and all four angles are 90 degrees. Such artificial concepts are very useful in many areas of mathematics and science. **natural concepts** have no fixed or readily specified set of defining features. They are fuzzy around the edges. Yet they more accurately reflect the state of the natural world, which rarely offers us the luxury of hard-and-fast, clearly defined concepts. [forming concepts] development or formation of concepts involves two psychological processes. - Identifying Identifying is placing something in a category. Categorizing certain kinds of geometrical figures as triangles certain kinds of animals as mammal, certain objects as vegetables etc. are all the by-products of identification - Anticipating Another aspect of concept is anticipation when an object is classified or identified as a member of a particular class or category it is expected that the object must have certain other characteristic of a member of that category for example if an animal is identified as dog it is also anticipated that will also bark and subjects to rabies. Thus concepts involved identification and anticipation both which together enable us to know about the world In an abstract form. **[Prototypes]** Such natural concepts are often based on prototypes---the best or clearest examples (Rosch, 1975). Prototypes emerge from our experience with the external world, and new items that might potentially fit within their category are then compared with them. The more attributes new items share with an existing prototype, the more likely they are to be included within the concepts A prototype is a mental representation that serves as a cognitive reference point for the category. The most salient features of the prototype are the first features that come to mind when the category is mentioned. **[Language ]** Language: A system of symbols, plus rules for combining them, used to communicate information. **[Nature of language]** Language uses symbols for communicating information. In order for a set of symbols to be viewed as a language, however, several additional criteria must be met. - information must be transmitted by the symbols: The words and sentences must carry meaning. - Although the number of separate sounds or words in a language may be limited, it must be possible to combine these elements into an essentially infinite number of sentences. - The meanings of these combinations must be independent of the settings in which they are used. In other words, sentences must be able to convey information about other places and other times. Only if all three of these criteria are met can the term language be applied to a system of communication. In actual use, language involves two major components: the production of speech, and its comprehension. **[Structure of language]** [Phonemes]: A set of sounds basic to a given language. [Morphemes]: The smallest units of speech that convey meaning. [Syntax:] Rules about how units of speech can be combined into sentences in a given language. [Lexemes:] The set of inflected forms taken by a single word. For example, members of the lexeme RUN include \"run\" (the uninflected form), \"running\" (inflected form), and \"ran.\" This lexeme excludes \"runner\" (a derived term---it has a derivational morpheme attached). [Context:] How everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning. Context includes tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. **[Role of language]** [Language and Thought: Do We Think What We Say or Say What We Think?] Although we often have vivid mental images, most of our thinking seems to involve words. This fact raises an intriguing question: What is the precise relationship between language and thought? One possibility, known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, suggests that language shapes or determines thought (Whorf, 1956). According to this view, people who speak different languages may perceive the world in different ways because their thinking is determined, at least in part, by the words available to them. For example, Eskimos, who have many different words to describe snow, may perceive this aspect of the physical world differently from English-speaking people, who have only one word. The opposing view is that thought shapes language. This position suggests that language merely reflects the way we think that is how our minds work. Theories of language acquisition - The behaviorist theory believes that \"infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection become the rewards. - Nativist theorists argue that children are born with an innate ability to organize laws of language, which enables children to easily learn a native language. They believe that children have language-specific abilities that assist them as they work towards mastering a language. - Interactionist approach (sociocultural theory) combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain how language is developed. According to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interaction making. [Basic Components of Language Development] Although the underlying mechanisms of language development remain to be clarified, much is known about how this process unfolds. Basically, it includes progress in three distinct but interrelated areas phonological development: development of the ability to pronounce the sounds and words of one or more languages. semantic development: learning to understand the meaning of words; and acquisition of grammar (the rules by which words are arranged into sentences in a given language) **[Reasoning:]** Cognitive activity that transforms information in order to reach specific conclusions. [Inductive reasoning] involves starting from specific premises and forming a general conclusion, while [deductive reasoning] involves using general premises to form a specific conclusion. **[Problem Solving]** Efforts to develop or choose among various responses in order to attain desired goals. Problem solving is defined as the process in which people attempt to overcome difficulties. The process involves achieving plans that move them from a starting situation to a desired goal of reaching conclusions through the use of higher mental functions, such as reasoning and creative thinking. **Types of problems** Well defined problem & ill defined problems [1. A well-defined problem] is one that has clarity in the problem, the problem solving strategy, and the goal or solution. [2.ill-defined problem] (also known as a poorly-defined problem) is one where there is a lack of clarity, or in other words, abstractness or confusion, in regards to the problem, problem solving strategy, and the goal or solution. Routine problem and non routine problem [1. A routine problem] is one that is typical and has a simple solution. Routine problems are what most people do in school: memorizing simple facts, how to do addition and subtraction, how to spell words, and so on. [2. In contrast, a non-routine problem] is more abstract or subjective and requires a strategy to solve. Eg: the ethics of social issues such as the death penalty, or the role of civil rights in laws, or themes in famous literature, might be considered non-routine. **[Stages of Problem solving]** **[1. Identifying the Problem]** While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. [Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :] Asking questions about the problem Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces Looking at the problem from different perspectives Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables **[2. Defining the Problem]** After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution. **[3. Forming a Strategy]** After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down. The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual\'s unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms. **[Heuristics]** are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution. **[Algorithms]** are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources. Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible. **[4. Organizing Information]** Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution. When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results. **[5. Allocating Resources]** Of course, we don\'t always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution. At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue. **[6. Monitoring Progress]** After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective. It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution. Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies. **[7. Evaluating the Results]** After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment. **[Barriers to effective problem solving]** [Functional Fixedness]: The tendency to think of using objects only as they have been used in the past. [Mental Set]: The impact of past experience on present problem solving; specifically, the tendency to retain methods that were successful in the past even if better alternatives now exist. [Assumptions]: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options. [Irrelevant or misleading information]: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information. **[Strategies of problem solving]** [Trial and Error:] A method of solving problems in which possible solutions are tried until one succeeds. [Algorithm:] A rule that guarantees a solution to a specific type of problem. [Means--Ends Analysis (forming sub goals):] A technique for solving problems in which the overall problem is divided into parts and efforts are made to solve each part in turn. [Analogy:] A strategy for solving problems based on applying solutions that were previously successful with other problems similar in underlying structure. [Heuristics]: heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution. [Changing the representation of the problem] Depends on how you envision a problem. Use a variety of ways to represent like diagrams, flowcharts, graphs, etc. Restructuring the representation of problems is often the key to solving insight [problems. Taking a break: Incubation] Incubation effect occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem [Culture, Cognitive Styles, and Problem Solving] Cultural differences exist in the cognitive styles used to problem solve. Holistic cognitive style focuses on context and relationships among elements. More prevalent in Eastern Asian cultures. Analytic cognitive style focuses on objects and their properties rather than context. More prevalent in Western cultures **[Creative thinking]** It is defined as personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new, novel and useful solution. Unlike ordinary solution to problems, creative solutions are the new one to the effect that other people have not thought before. The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique way of conceptualizing the world around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the word 'new'. In human beings we find two kinds of productive abilities -- the convergent and divergent abilities. [Convergent thinking] is the process of finding concrete and familiar solutions to problems. [Divergent thinking] is the creative process of generating original ideas and new possibilities. Creative thinking involves four stages: [1. Preparation:] In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved even after days, weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the thinker turns away from it initiating next stage. [2. Incubation:] During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade. The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period. Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games, etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind. [3. Illumination:] Following the period of incubation the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently the obscure thing becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination and is similar to 'aha (eureka)' experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to the crown problem. [4. Verification:] Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that solution is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning. **[DECISION MAKING]** The cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives, ranging from the relatively clear cut (e.g., ordering a meal at a restaurant) to the complex (e.g., selecting a mate). The act of evaluating (i.e., forming opinions of) several alternatives and choosing the one most likely to achieve one or more goals. **[Types of Heuristics]** [Representativeness heuristic]: involves making a decision by comparing the present situation to the most representative mental prototype. [Availability heuristic]: is a cognitive bias in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision. For example, plane crashes can make people afraid of flying. However, the likelihood of dying in a car accident is far higher than dying as a passenger on an airplane. [Familiarity heuristics]: The familiarity heuristic uses familiarity to help you decide between a range of choices. This heuristic assumes that the person, thing or situation you know will always remain or behave as you remember it. Your familiarity with it makes you consider it the safest option among other choices with which you have less experience or knowledge.eg: choosing a brand of noodles, while you are purchasing, which you had the best previous experience. [Anchoring heuristics]: occurs when you rely heavily on either pre-existing information or the first piece of information (the anchor) when making a decision.