Modern History Study Questions PDF

Modern History Study Questions + Key Terms: **Revolutions in the Atlantic world:** Concepts; (key terms): - **Declaration of independence**: The in 1776 document in which the American colonies declared independence from Great Britain and recast traditional English rights as universal human rights. - **National Assembly**: French representative assembly formed in 1789 by the delegates of the third estate and some members of the clergy, the second estate. - **Reign of Terror**: The period from 1793 to 1794, during which Robbespierre's committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of political crimes and a new revolutionary culture was imposed - **Continental System**: A blockade imposed by Napoleon in which no ship coming from Britain, or its colonies was permitted to dock at any port controlled by the French. - **Creoles**: People of European descent born in the Americas. Study questions: 1. **Discuss the origins of the French Revolution. How important was social change? Also deal with the influence of the Enlightenment, of the American Revolution, of war and of financial crisis. Why was the king unable to restore order in 1789?** - There was imperial competition and financial difficulties after the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. Higher taxation was thwarted by high courts so the result was a rise in national debt. - The Third Estate wanted more representation in the Estates General, as they made up most of the population -- walking out of the Estates General and the National Assembly was born. - Noble privileges were abolished and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was issued, inspired by the principles of the Enlightenment, it guaranteed equality before the law and ideas of liberty. - It was inspired by the American revolution but was far more radicalized. - The rise of the bourgeoise closed the economic gap between the noblemen and the peasants. - With the Great Fear spreading in the country, it was impossible to try to stop the revolution without causing more turmoil. 2. **Discuss the major reforms introduced during the first (1789-17920) so-called liberal revolution in France.** - Storming of the Bastille: starting point of the first half of the revolution. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was issued; equality before the law, representative government for a sovereign people, individual freedom. - The National Assembly abolished the nobility. - All lawmaking power resided in the hand of the National Assembly. - The first French constitution passed in 1791 -- France becoming a constitutional monarchy - Legalization of divorce, broader women's rights to inherit property and obtain financial support for illegitimate children from fathers, but still excluded women from political office and voting. - Prohibition of monopolies, guilds, workers associations. - Abolished barriers the trade within France. - Religious freedom, nationalized property of the Catholic church, abolished monasteries - national church was established in 1790 by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy 3. **What were the four major reforms during the 'most radical period of the revolution'?** - Spring 1793-summer 1794, Committee of Public Safety April 1793 Robespierre, planned economy fixed price of bread, people had to work for war effort, emergency form of socialism - Reign of terror enforced compliance with republican beliefs and practices, special courts tried enemies of the nation for political crimes, 40.000 men and women were executed or died in prison, suppression of women's participation in political debate, clubs for women were prohibited, women's proper place was at home. - Cultural revolution, revolutionary art and songs, secular holidays to celebrate republican virtues, decimal system for weights and measures, calendar ten-day week, de-christianization. - Birth of modern nationalism, draft on all unmarried young men. 4. What is meant with the 'Thermidorean reaction'? - Thermidorian Reaction, in the French Revolution, the parliamentary revolt initiated on 9 Thermidor, Year II (July 27, 1794), which resulted in the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the collapse of revolutionary fervour and the Reign of Terror in France. - 1795, moderate reaction, abolished economic controls - Restricted local political organizations - New constitution, only men of substantial means eligible to serve as deputy - Executive power to a Directory of 5 men, to prevent a new Robespierre - 1797 national elections return of large number conservative and even monarchist deputies, the Directory nullified the elections began to govern dictatorially, 1799 coup Napoleon. 5. What was the revolutionary about the age of revolution? How did the states the emerged out of the eighteenth-century revolutions differ from the states the predominated in previous centuries? What is the age of revolution? What is revolution? What is the difference between earlier revolutions and the revolutions of the late eighteenth century? Compare the key differences between the old and the new states. The key differences are polit ical and social but one could maybe also point to ideas (nationalism) - What was revolutionary about the age revolution? these included equality as a natural right for all; the notion that political systems should genuinely involve and represent the people; Challenges to privileges afforded by the Church and monarchies; and the idea that colonies can become independent from empires. - Difference between old and new states; constitutions, limits of power to the executive branch, sovereignty of the people. The change from absolutist monarchies to representative governments with a written constitution, and the creation of nation states. Influenced by the new ideas of the Enlightenment, the American Revolution (1765-1783) is usually considered the starting point of the Age of Revolution. - What is the age of revolution? the Age of Revolutions includes the American Revolution, the French revolution, the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Haitian Revolution, the revolt of slaves in Latin America, and of course the wave of revolutions across Europe in 1848 among others. - What is a revolution; an overthrow or repudiation and the thorough replacement of an established government or political system by the people governed. - Sociology, a radical and pervasive change in society and the social structure, especially one made suddenly and often accompanied by violence. Compare social evolution. - Difference between earlier revolutions and the revolutions at the end of the 18^th^ century? Earlier revolutions did not bring the change from absolutist monarchies to representative governments with a written constitution and the creation of nation states. - The Declaration of the Rights of the Man and the Citizen; equality before the law, representative government for a sovereign people, individual freedom 6. Discuss the role of slavery and the role of France (including the French Revolution) in the leadup to the Haitian Revolution. - French colony, huge profits, ruthless system of slave-based plantation agriculture - Code noir originally granted free people of color the same legal status as whites, from 1760's colonial administration rescinded these rights - Free people of color looked to French revolutionaries' abolitionism and liberty, equality and fraternity - White creole elite was determined to protect its way of life including slaveholding - National Assembly in Paris frustrated hopes, feared that support the free people of color would lead to slave insurrections. Assembly refused to extend the French constitutional safeguards to the colonies - July 1790 failed rebellion Ogé free man of color had returned from Paris, executed. - May 1791 National Assembly granted political rights to free people of color born to two possessed sufficient property. Governor Saint-Dominigue refused to enact it. - Revolt, slave revolt August 1791 - April 4, 1792 National Assembly enfranchised all free men of African descent - September 1793 British troops invade Saint-Domingue, Spanish colony Santo Domingo supported rebel slaves, National Convention promised freedom to slaves who fought for France, 1793/1794 abolition of slavery and extended to all French territories, 1802 Napoleon reinstated slavery, 1848 slavery abolished. 1802 expedition sent by Napoleon failed - 1804 France recognized independence of Haiti, 1825 Haiti had to pay 150 million francs indemnity to compensate former slave holders 7. Why according to Reinhardt, has then Hatian revolution been 'hushed up'? - Napoleon was ambitious; having acquired the vast Louisiana territory, from Spain in 1800, he wanted an empire from Rocky Mountians to India, from north Russia to Sahara - And with Europe's most powerful army at his disposal who should stop him? Certainly not the United States, with their 'pathetic 3000 man regular army' - Napoleon decided, however to his troops make small detour to end a tiresome little slave revolt in one of the French colonies in the Carribbean, Saint-Domingue. Nothing serious. Six weeks, by his estimate, certainly should be more than enough to end the insurrection, restore the French rule and move on the North America. Or so he thought. Two years and almost 60,000 dead French troops later, a disillusioned Napoleon, fed up with reports about losses and defeats in the colony, abandoned his plans for a transatlantic France. - The U.S. emissaries Monroe and Livingston, sent to Paris in a desperate attempt of the Jefferson administration to at least sign an agreement that allowed U.S. citizens to navigate the Mississippi and store their export goods in New Orleans, 5 must have quite surprised when they were offered to buy the whole Louisiana territory instead. And for a ridiculously small amount of money. A real bargain 6 that in one stroke doubled the size of the United States. - Eight months later, on January 1, 1804, the former colony of Saint Domingue under its new leader Jacques Dessalines became independent and took on the ancient Amerindian name Haiti.7 What nobody would have anticipated could no longer be denied: A motley crowd of former slaves had somehow defeated "la grande armée"---the great army that in the preceding years had marched almost effortlessly through the whole of Europe. - Declaration of independence (631) - The 1776 document in which the American colonies declared independence from Great Britain and recast traditional English rights as universal human rights. - National Assembly (634) - French representative assembly formed in 1789 by the delegates of the third estate and some members of the clergy, the second estate. - Reign of Terror (638) - The period from 1793 to 1794, during which Robepierre\'s Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of political crimes and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. - Continental System (643) - A blockade imposed by Napoleon in which no ship coming from Britain, or its colonies was permitted to dock at any port controlled by the French. - Creoles (646) - People of European descent born in the Americas --- Explicitly American interpretation of the term! - Wiki: Creole peoples, ethnic groups which originated from linguistic, cultural, and often racial mixing of colonial-era emigrants from Europe with non-European peoples **Week 2, class 2: The Industrial Revolution** - **Why did Industrial revolution start in Britain?** - **Abundant coal** - **High wages** - **Peaceful and centralized government** - **Well-developed financial systems** - **Innovative culture** - **Highly skilled craftsmen** - **Strong position in empire and global trade, including slavery** - **Capital intensive machine-powered system of production** - **[The Industrial Revolution and its consequences]** - **Discuss the international variations in levels of industrialization from 1750 to 1913.** - **1750 all countries were fairly close together including non-Western areas like China and India** - **- 1800 Britain notable lead per capita level of industrialization, gap widened 1830-1860** - **- Belgium led in adopting Britain's new technology, big surge 1830-1860** - **- France slow but steady economic growth and industrial output** - **- spectacular rise Germany and USA after 1860, Second Industrial Revolution** - **- in general eastern and southern Europa later than northern and western Europe** - **- after 1880 real progress and growth Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia** - **- non-Western world decreases in China and India** - **- after 1850 forced opening of Japan to the West, production boom late 19^th^ century** - **- differential rates of wealth and power-creating industrial development heightened disparities within Europe also greatly magnified existing inequalities within Europa and between Europe and rest of the world** - **What were the most important agents of industrialization on the continent?** - **British technicians and skilled work slipped out of Britain illegally and were a powerful force in spread of early industrialization** - **Talented European entrepreneurs such as Fritz Harkort 1793-1880. Served in England as a Prussian army officer during Napoleonic wars. He set up shop building steam engines in Ruhr valley, he succeeded in building and selling engines but failed to turn a profit** - **National governments were even more important on Continent in supporting industrialization than in Britain. Tariff protection in France after 1815, Germany customs unions in 1818 and 1834 Zollverein. After 1815 continental governments paid the roads, canals and railroads, tunnels. Especially Belgium and France.** - **Banks played a larger role Continent. Private banks avoided industrial investment as being too risky. Two Belgian banks 1830s got permission to be corporations enjoying limited liability which helped to attract investors. Became industrial banks. France and Germany the same in 1850s and 1860s.** - **early 1870s Britain was still most industrial nation but some continental countries were closing the gap** - **Hanks et al. state: "The rise of industrialization in Britain, Western Europe, and the United States thus caused other regions of the world to become increasingly economically dependent" (p. 709). Explain this statement.** - **Industrial Revolution happened in Europe Japan and USA prior to 1860s** - **Russia: not overall industrialization, Russia confirmed its role as provider of raw materials (timber and grain) to the hungry West** - **Egypt industrialized but textile could not compete with lower-priced European imports. Like Russia Egypt fell back on agricultural exports such as sugar and cotton to European markets** - **European governments maintained direct or indirect control ME, Asia and Latin America and kept colonial markets as sources of raw materials and consumers for European products. Indian textile workers lost their job. Britain high tariffs on Indian cottons but prohibited Indian tariffs on British imports** - **Latin America disrupted by early 19^th^ century wars of independence. Steam power first for agriculture and later industry** - **result industrialization Britain, Western Europa and USA kept other regions increasingly economic dependent. Even deindustrialization or delayed industrialization made them vulnerable for imperialism** - **China end of 19^th^ century mechanized production based on traditional methods. Japan was more successful but China faced widespread uprisings and after 1900 Boxer Uprising Western powers forced China to pay heavy indemnities** - ***Hanks 710-711: As economic conditions improved, only women in poor families tended to work outside the home. The ideal became separate spheres, the strict division of labour by sex. This rigid division meant that married women faced great obstacles if they needed or wanted to move into the world of paid employment outside the home. Well-paying jobs were off-limits to women, and a woman's wage was almost always less than a man's, even for the same work.*** - **What is meant with the term \"separate spheres\" (p. 711)? What were the causes of the gender division of labor?** - **with the restriction of child labour and the collapse of the family work pattern in the 1830s came a new sexual division of labour. By 1850 the man was emerging as the family's primary wage earner, while the married woman found only limited job opportunities. Generally denied high wage jobs, wives were expected to stay at home.** - **the new and unfamiliar discipline of the clock and the machine was hard for women since it clashed with child care** - **running a household in urban poverty was demanding job. No supermarkets, public transportation,shopping and feeding was challenging** - **young and generally unmarried women who did work for wages outside the home were segregated from men and confined to certain women's work. Factory system led to more unplanned pregnancies that led to segregation. Mines Act of 1842 prohibited underground work for all women and girls as well as boys under ten.** - **domestic ideals emanating from middle-class women who embraced separate spheres ideology. Women should pay attention to their homes and families** - **[The Great Divergence: Why was Britain first, and not China?]** - **What is meant with the term \"The Great Divergence\"? (Refer to the text by Peer Vries) Summarize the Eurocentric approach and the views of the California School.** - **Western world industrialized and began to grow much faster than rest. Summarize the Eurocentric approach.** - **1. Max Weber: the West underwent rationalization that resulted in the emergence of capitalist market economies, bureaucratic states and a disenchanted culture that was ideally suited to produce science, technology and a methodical way of living. The rise of the market (Landes)** - **2. Marxist: capitalism as motor economic development is Western invention. Non-Western lacked internal dynamics to manage transition to capitalism on its own** - **3. dependency theory, world systems-analysis: capitalism is characterised by monopoly, collusion and coercion, rest passive, Eurocentric too** - **Summarize the views of the California School. Pomeranz, Goldstone** - **1. from roughly 1400 to 1800 the most advanced economies of Eurasia formed a world of 'surprising resemblances'** - **2. and that the Great Divergence between 'the West' and 'the Rest' only originated with industrialisation and must be interpretated as a fairly contingent and recent phenomenon, basically due to differences in the availability of resources.** - **3. societies in Asia and the Middle East were the world leaders in economics; in science and technology; and in shipping, trade and exploration until about AD 1500.** - **4. Europe did not catch up until 1800** - **5. China from 1750-1800 biggest economy** - **Pomeranz and other \"Californians\" describe the economies of Western Europe and China in terms of a world of "surprising resemblances". (p. 736) According to Pomeranz Britain was just fortunate in that it possessed \"extra resources in the form of coal and colonies" (p. 737), that according to him provide the major explanation of its industrialization.** - **What is the counter-argument Vries puts forward?** - **What was the role of the \"mercantilist state\" (p. 739) according to Vries in the industrialization of Britain?** - **Our current more positive view of China's economy on the eve of Western industrialisation is not unproblematic.** - **The more 'Eurasian' resemblances and equivalents are brought into prominence, the more miraculous if not downright inexplicable becomes the enormous gap that emerged during the nineteenth century between Britain and China.** - **How can situations that are surprisingly similar produce huge differences?** - **If resemblances really were so striking, as Pomeranz but even more Goody in his book of 2007 -- where the author seems allergic to any kind of European exceptionalism -- claim, then why did not China 'take off', or at least ﬁnd it easy to catch up when others did?** - **Mention one other argument against the idea of the Californians that Britain and China showed surprising resemblances.** - **How important is \"culture\" (p. 744) in explaining the British industrial revolution according to Vries?** - **Western Europe as a whole already from the Renaissance onwards in this respect was on a different trajectory than China.** - **Knowledge accumulated and progress became normal there.** - **In fact, not only was dynamism slacking in Mid-Qing China; there are various examples that technologies and forms of knowledge actually disappeared.** - **In the production of silk and cotton, with the passing of time, fewer machines were used and they tended to become simpler.** - **Only three per cent of its population lived in cities of over 10,000 people.** - **In Western Europe, this was over ten per cent. (de Vries 1984: 349) The contrast with Britain is striking. In 1750, more than sixteen per cent of its total population lived in towns of over 10,000 inhabitants; in 1800, over 20 per cent.** - **China's level of urbanisation between the Sung era and the beginning of the nineteenth century actually decreased.** - **China had trouble defeating even quite small opponents like Vietnam, a country with a couple of million inhabitants.** - **In the 1300s, China's government could raise a ﬂeet of 400,000 soldiers and sailors. The ﬂeet of Zheng He in the beginning of the ﬁfteenth century consisted of enormous ships manned by thousands of sailors and it travelled half the globe.** - **At the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, there no longer existed a Chinese navy to speak off. The contrast with Britain and its Royal Navy couldn't be bigger. Between the beginning of Qing rule and the ﬁrst half of the nineteenth century, China's army tended to become smaller rather than bigger, in any case in comparison to total population. In comparison to what happened in Europe, where the size of armies had increased enormously and continuous change in organisation and armaments had become the norm, it became small and weak.** - **From the beginning of Qing rule onwards, it never counted more than 20,000 to 30,000 ofﬁcials for China as a whole, whereas total population increased sharply.** - **Considering the growing complaints about corruption towards the end of the eighteenth century, one may also query its supposed efﬁciency.** - **Here too the direction of developments in Britain was different. The Chinese state did not become stronger over the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in terms of 'hard power' at least. Important European states did.** - **Overall, Qing China seems to have undergone far fewer institutional changes than Britain, which had its military and ﬁnancial revolutions.** - **Paper money was invented in China under the Sung. Under the Qing, the state no longer issued it. Neither did it coin any silver or gold currency.** - **In the eighteenth century, the importance of copper as currency increased.** - **Again, developments in Britain went in an opposite direction. In the eighteenth century, the country was on a gold standard and had a central bank.** - **In Britain wage labour became increasingly important. Whereas the percentage of proletarians in China's total labour force was negligible, certainly less than ﬁve per cent, wage labour in Britain was becoming the rule rather than the exception.** - **In the countryside, it was already more than ﬁfty per cent at the end of the seventeenth century and about three-quarters around 1850.** - **Landlords in China were not managers of large farms but 'tenurial landlords', i.e. landowners who rented out their land in small parcels to peasants. (Chao 1986: chapters 7 and 8) One ﬁnds this overwhelming predominance of small peasant cultivators everywhere** - **in China, a different path had been chosen, which of course created certain path-dependencies and lock-ins. We see no increase in the use of coal and iron, no improvement in the quality of iron utensils and implements, a decreasing importance of sophisticated machinery and a continuation of decentralised modes of production, with peasant households continuing to be by far the dominant productive entity.** - **Coal, steam and factories did make a fundamental difference for Britain, as 'Californians' explicitly underline.** - **They, however, were not 'accidental' sudden solutions to a 'Malthusian' problem.** - **Britain had a tradition of trying to harness energy in production. Technological innovation was a broad process, embedded in all sectors of economic life and had already started decades before industrialisation.** - **Up until the second half of the nineteenth century, ﬁfty per cent of all growth in productivity came from non-mechanised sectors of the economy. Such innovation was a precondition for industrialisation and had no parallel in China.** - **Neither do we see the kind of interaction between scholars, engineers, tinkerers, artisans and entrepreneurs and the 'Baconian' efforts to try and apply science in China.** - **Explain: \"\... ongoing and fierce interstate competition \[\...\] was the motor behind economic development and imperialism in the West.\" (p. 746)** - **Europe was made of states that competed with each other, China was centralized state** - **Compare the legacy of the political revolutions of the late eighteenth century (Chapter 22) with that of the Industrial Revolution (Chapter 23)** - **The legacies of both the political revolutions of the late eighteenth century are mixed. The political revolutions introduced highly important modern ideas to the world: republicanism and democracy, sovereignty of the people, constitutionalism, rights of man and citizen, the abolishment of slavery. However the results were mixed.** - **The US remained a republic, but fought a terrible civil war over slavery.** - **France returned to monarchism, but would in the end become a staunch republic. (Smart students might refer to the reaction and Napoleonic backlash to the revolutionary ideas, those are not very explicit in chapter 22).** - **Representative democracies returned to the European stage in the 1850s, but the revolutions also led to the advent of nationalism. ** - **The industrial revolutions consequences were mainly social and economic. Productivity increased enormously, wage earning replaced subsistence farming. Living standards were slow to increase and the rural poor suffered from disruption of their communities. Economic hardship and the advent of the working poor in the new urban areas led to the advent of socialism and the labour movement. The separation of the sexes into separate spheres and the abolishment of child labour followed. Through the industrial revolution Europe outdistanced the rest of the world in terms of productivity and living standards. Transportation and communication rapidly developed, decreasing the virtual size of the globe. The increased living standards of Europe came at a cost to the colonies and dependencies of European nations across the globe. Industrialisation cannot be seen separate from slavery. (Smart students will remark that the huge difference between Europe and the rest of the world led to imperialism).** - **Industrialization:** - **1750 all countries close together** - **1800 Britain a lead, widened 1830-1860** - **Belgium emulates Britain** - **Slow but steady growth France** - **After 1860 spectacular rise Germany and USA (Second Industrial Revolution** - **China and India decrease between 1750-1913** - **Forced opening Japan 1850s, production boom** - **Why was it difficult for the others to catch up with Britain?** - **British products were inexpensive, dominated world market** - **British technology was so advanced very few engineers outside Uk understood it** - **Steam power required huge investments in iron and coal industries and railroad,** - **Labourers resisted move to working in factories** - **But western Europe still had advantages** - **Rich tradition putting out enterprise, merchant capitalism, skilled urban trades** - **They could borrow technology, engineers, money of Britain** - **They had strong governments willing to use the power of the state to promote industry and catch up with Britain** - **France tariff protection after 1815** - **1834 German Zollverein** - **Governments build railroads, roads, canals** - **Belgium, France, Germany Bank limited liability attract investors** - **Why no transition to industrial economy in Russia, Egypt, India, China, Latin America?** - **Russia no overall industrialization, provider timber, grain** - **Egypt industry could not compete lower-priced European imports, fell back to sugar and cotton exports** - **India poor textile workers lost their job due UK cheap cotton, UK tariffs on imports from India, forbade import duties India** - **Latin America, steam power for sugar and coffee, transportation** - **Economic weakness made countries vulnerable imperialism** - **China: industrial production traditional basis, uprisings (Boxer uprising 1900, China had to pay indemnities to West, reduced chance industrialization)** - **Living and working conditions poor stagnated or deteriorated until 1850** - **Cottage workers used putting-out system hated factories, mill owners turned to pauper children, 1802 forbidden Parliament** - **Textile factories steam power came to cities for cheap labour** - **Late 1830s wage labourers coined working class, many Irish** - **British Factory Acts 1802-1833 8-13 years 8 hours day, 14-18 12 hours, inspectors** - **1850 man family's primary wage earner, women denied good jobs at high wages, duties home, discipline machine conflict child care, shopping and feeding family was hell of a job, work outside fuelled illegitimacy explosion (more unplanned pregnancies)** - **1830/1840, wages began to rise** - **Average worker earned 1850 30 % more 1770, but worked 50 days more (300 days) 1770 (250 days), normal workday remained 11 hours** - **UK urbanized, high infant mortality, life expectancy 25-27 years, 15 years less national average** - **From 1850s wages rose, prices dropped, greater variety food, smallpox vaccination, anesthesia** - **Factories became larger, social mobilization more difficult, expensive formal education more important for advancement\`** - **Response industrialization** - **Romantic poets William Blake, William Wordsworth** - **Luddites 1811, smashing machines, Malthus/Ricardo pessimistic too** - **1844 Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England** - **Marx: separate classes based relationship to means of production, conflicting interests, class struggle, class-consciousness** - **1850 most people worked farms, second largest domestic service,** - **British iron industry large scale capitalist, small metal goods small, ten wage workers** - **1799 Combination Acts outlawed unions and strikes** - **1813/14 Repealed old law regulating wages artisans and conditions apprenticeship, 1824 repealed Combination Acts, unions tolerated** - **How to study the great divergence:** - **California School:** - **1. from roughly 1400 to 1800 the most advanced economies of Eurasia formed a world of 'surprising resemblances'** - **2. and that the Great Divergence between 'the West' and 'the Rest' only originated with industrialisation and must be interpretated as a fairly contingent and recent phenomenon, basically due to differences in the availability of resources.** - **Vries:** - **1. Californians have a tendency to exaggerate the resemblances between Western Europe and East Asia and should be more speciﬁc when it comes to time, place and the differing historical trajectories of various regions.** - **2. they should pay far more attention to political and military developments and to the role of culture and institutions.** - **Eurocentric approaches** - **1. Max Weber: the West underwent rationalisation that resulted in the emergence of capitalist market economies, bureaucratic states and a disenchanted culture that was ideally suited to produce science, technology and a methodical way of living. The rise of the market (Landes)** - **2. Marxist: capitalism as motor economic development is Western invention. Non-Western lacked internal dynamics to manage transition to capitalism on its own** - **3. Dependency theory, world systems-analysis: capitalism is actually characterised by monopoly, collusion and coercion, rest passive, Eurocentric too** - **societies in Asia and the Middle East were the world leaders in economics; in science and technology; and in shipping, trade and exploration until about AD 1500.** - **Europe did not catch up until 1800** - **China from 1750-1800 biggest economy, 1/3 global inhabitants** - **societies in Asia and the Middle East were the world leaders in economics; in science and technology; and in shipping, trade and exploration until about AD 1500.** - **Europe did not catch up until 1800** - **China from 1750-1800 biggest economy, 1/3 global inhabitants** - **Western Europe as a whole already from the Renaissance onwards in this respect was on a different trajectory than China.** - **Knowledge accumulated and progress became normal there.** - **In fact, not only was dynamism slacking in Mid-Qing China; there are various examples that technologies and forms of knowledge actually disappeared.** - **In the production of silk and cotton, with the passing of time, fewer machines were used and they tended to become simpler.** - **The Industrial Revolution in Britain has traditionally been associated with breakthroughs in the use of energy and in technology, and with 'the rise of the factory'** - **in China, a different path had been chosen, which of course created certain path-dependencies and lock-ins. We see no increase in the use of coal and iron, no improvement in the quality of iron utensils and implements, a decreasing importance of sophisticated machinery and a continuation of decentralised modes of production, with peasant households continuing to be by far the dominant productive entity.** - **The developments we traditionally associate with industrialisation therefore were less improbable as a continuation of ongoing developments in Britain than they would have been in China. This does not imply that industrialisation as it occurred was a necessary or even a logical outcome of preceding developments in Britain nor that it would have been impossible in China.** - **Coal, steam and factories did make a fundamental difference for Britain, as 'Californians' explicitly underline.** - **They, however, were not 'accidental' sudden solutions to a 'Malthusian' problem.** - **Britain had a tradition of trying to harness energy in production. Technological innovation was a broad process, embedded in all sectors of economic life and had already started decades before industrialisation.** - **Up until the second half of the nineteenth century, ﬁfty per cent of all growth in productivity came from non-mechanised sectors of the economy. Such innovation was a precondition for industrialisation and had no parallel in China.** - **Neither do we see the kind of interaction between scholars, engineers, tinkerers, artisans and entrepreneurs and the 'Baconian' efforts to try and apply science in China.** - **Are we really to believe that institutions like Britain's 'national' bank, its funded public debt, its chartered companies, its Parliament -- all with no equivalent whatsoever in China -- made no difference to the economy? What about its systems of law and taxation, its monetary and ﬁnancial systems?** - **Till at least the 1820s, Britain's state was ﬁrst and foremost a ﬁscal military state. Taxes were much higher than in China and increased continually. Its tax system was completely different. It had a huge national debt, something unknown in China. Relatively speaking, its army and especially navy were much bigger.** - **Rulers wanted to govern lightly, focusing on providing security and wealth for their people.** - **They only interfered when they thought that security and wealth, and the existing social order, were endangered, for example by miners who were regarded as very unruly people or by foreign traders who might have a bad inﬂuence on their subjects.** - **They were in no way dependent on merchants for their income. For that they could rely on their land taxes. The typical Western alliance between power and proﬁt was absent.** - **The approach of the Californians is innovative, but as all innovators they tend to neglect what they probably regard as old-fashioned** **Classical topics like the study of modes of production and especially of cultural factors, institutions and politics get quite short shrift in their work.** - **If culture and institutions and the state indeed matter so little, one wonders why in all countries where industrialisation was on the agenda, one sees these ﬁerce debates between 'modernisers' and 'conservatives' about cultural and institutional change.** - **Differences UK and China; different paths** - **UK fiscal military state, debt, China small bureaucracy** - **Large land holdings UK, small peasants in China** - **UK technological dynamism (science, craftsmen, entrepreneurs) versus Chinese technological stagnation** - **UK much more urbanized China** - **China no invention paper money, no central bank** - **British navy/army much bigger China** - **Chinese government agrarian paternalist, not dependent on merchants, relied land taxation, UK: alliance power and profit** - **Liberalism** - **1. Discuss the main political and economic ideas of liberalism in the first half of the nineteenth century.** - **2. Describe liberal views on the monarchy, the suffrage, free trade, and education. (Use [Sperber] in your answer). Did you notice any national varieties in liberalism?** - **3.. How did \"classical liberalism\" in Britain change in the second half of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century? Pay attention to the suffrage and the doctrine of laissezfaire.** - **Conservatism** - **4. What were according to [Sperber] the two main themes of conservatism? Explain.** - **5. Why and how did the conservative Austrian chancellor Von Metternich oppose liberalism? Why did another conservative, German chancellor Bismarck, introduce universal male suffrage in Germany in 1871 and old age pensions and other social legislation in the 1880s?** - **Socialism** - **6. Define the socialist creed.** - **7. On p. 723/644 Hanks mentions \"revisionism\". What is revisionism? Who were the main supporters? Why was there a \"trend toward moderation\" in the working class movement in Western Europe?** - **A New Enlightenment. ** - **8. The second half of the nineteenth century has been called the New Enlightenment. In this period science increasingly influenced society. Give two examples of this development.** - **9. On p. 724/645 Hanks remarks: \"Much of world history in the past two centuries can be seen as a struggle over the unfinished legacies of the late-eighteenth century revolutions in politics and economics.\" Illustrate this statement with two examples.** - **Comparison** - **10. How did the spread of radical ideas and the movements for reform and revolution explored in this chapter draw on the "unfinished" political and industrial revolutions of the late eighteenth century (Chapters 22, 23)? How did conservatism, liberalism, nationalism and socialism spawn from this dual political and industrial revolution?** - **study question1:. Discuss the main political and economic ideas of liberalism in the first half of the nineteenth** - **The main political and economic ideas of liberalism 1800-1850:** - **A philosophy whose principal ideas were equality and liberty;** - **liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law, but not one man one vote but property qualifications** - **as well as such individual freedoms as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.** - **economic principles, which called for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy. This philosophy was popularly known as the doctrine of laissez faire** - **radicals wanted one man one vote, general suffrage, more social and economic equality** - **Describe liberal views on the monarchy, the suffrage, free trade, and education. (Use [Sperber] in your answer). Did you notice any national varieties in liberalism?** **Liberal views on monarchy, hereditary monarch would provide continuity and stability as independent executive** - **Only in France, some liberals were republicans just like USA model** - **Society was self-regulating: limited franchise, securing civil rights, mutual checks executive and legislative: restrict governmental activity** - **Women dependent on men, employees on employers, so no vote** - **Distinction between mob and the people** - **Guizot: ''Enrichissez-vous,''** - **Equality for the law: no feudal tenures agriculture, no strikes or trade unions** - **took the lead in founding institutions that would allow workers to acquire their own property: savings banks, mutual benefit societies, and institutes of technical and vocational education.** - **Free trade, economic growth and industrialization** - **Zollverein 1834,** - **Central Italy, southern Germany against British industrialization, lead to propertyless proletarians, protect guilds** - **Friedrich List protectionist against free trade, Hungarian liberals adopted it, railroads, industry, seaport** - **Liberals great supporters of education, anti-clericalism** - **In the constitutional monarchies of western Europe, above all in France, under the Orléans dynasty, come to power following the revolution of 1830, liberalism became governmental.** - **French liberalism was party status quo** - **Rest Europe liberalism was oppositional political movement against absolutism. Absolutists in Prussia, Austria and Italy dead against constitutional monarchy** - **Liberals were for equality for the law but not franchise** - **Supported ideals French revolution but they were no democrats or republicans** - **Notables, shunning violence, gradualism** - **in fact, it took the drastic, unexpected and often unwanted step of violent revolution in 1848 to bring liberals, however briefly, to power.** - **3. How did \"classical liberalism\" in Britain change in the second half of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century? Pay attention to the suffrage and the doctrine of laissezfaire.** - **The English parliamentary system guaranteed basic civil rights, but only about 8 percent of the population could vote for representatives to Parliament.** - **By the 1780s there was growing interest in reform, but the French Revolution threw the British aristocracy into a panic.** - **After 1815 the British government put down popular protests over unemployment and the high cost of grain caused by the Napoleonic Wars with repressive legislation and military force.** - **The Reform Bill of 1832 moved British politics in a more democratic direction by giving new industrial areas increased representation in the House of Commons and by increasing the number of voters by about 50 percent.** - **Two years later, the New Poor Law called for unemployed and indigent families to be placed in harsh workhouses rather than receiving aid from local parishes to remain in their own homes. With this act, Britain's rulers sought to relieve middle-class taxpayers of the burden of poor relief and to encourage unemployed rural workers to migrate to cities and take up industrial work.** - **Many working people protested their exclusion from voting and the terms of the New Poor Law. Between 1838 and 1848 they joined the Chartist movement (see "The Early Labor Movement in Britain" in Chapter 23), which demanded universal male suffrage. In 1847 the ruling conservative party, known as the Tories, sought to appease working people with the Ten Hours Act, which limited the workday for women and young people in factories to 10 hours. Tory aristocrats championed such legislation in order to compete with the middle class for working-class support.** - **This competition meant that the Parliamentary state relied on eliciting support from its people and thereby succeeded in managing unrest without the outbreak of revolution. Another factor favoring Great Britain's largely peaceful evolution in the nineteenth century was the fact that living standards had begun to rise significantly by the late 1840s, as the benefits of industrialization finally began to be felt. Thus England avoided the violence and turmoil of the revolutions of 1848 that shook continental Europe.** - **In spite of terrible conditions, Ireland's population doubled from 4 million to 8 million between 1780 and 1840, fueled in large part by the calories and nutritive qualities of the potato. However, the potato crop failed in 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851 in Ireland and throughout much of Europe.** - **famine, immigration 1 million to GB and USA (1845-1851)** - **5. What were according to [Sperber] the three main themes of conservatism? Explain. ** - **Reaction against Enlightenment ideas** - **Three main themes dominated it, historical tradition (institutions living organisms), patriarchalism (state is father, love and chastise), and divine justification (Christian state)** - **institutions living organisms product of history: incompatible with newly written constitution** - **Could be used as criticism of bureaucracy** - **If all men were equal why no women vote? Few liberals wanted that.** - **Alliance throne and altar, protestant revivalism Bismarck married Von Putkammern, Catholics Jesuits and Redemptorists** - **Hungarians nobles Catholics against protestant government, Hungarian liberals were calvinist** - **Against Laissez-faire, industrialization, and economic individualism, clashed divinely inspired hierarchy, railroads can have revolutionary effect** - **Nobility Prussia, supported King, against constitution, free trade wool, grain, timber exports** - **1840s conservatives on the defensive, Metternich despair** - **France 1830 Orléans, liberal regime, conservatives struggled with it but sometimes rallied to the liberal regime since it protected property and bulwark against radicalism** - **5. Why and how did the conservative Austrian chancellor Von Metternich oppose liberalism? Why did another conservative, German chancellor Bismarck, introduce universal male suffrage in Germany in 1871 and old age pensions and other social legislation in the 1880s?** - **Holy Alliance 1815-1848 Austria, Prussia, Russia, counter revolutionary, legitimism** - **Metternich dominated German Confederation 39 states** - **1819 repressive Karlsbad Decrees, censorship liberal ideas (newspapers, universities)** - **strong governments needed to protect from worst instincts** - **liberalism had led to war and bloodshed** - **against nationalism, that would explode multi-ethnic states like Austria-Hungary, Russia, Ottoman Empire** - **By 1859 liberals had assumed control of the parliament in Prussia** - **Wilhelm I pushed to raise taxes and increase the defense budget to double the army's size. The Prussian parliament, reflecting the middle class's desire for a less militaristic society, rejected the military budget in 1862, and the liberals triumphed in new elections. King Wilhelm then called on Count Otto von Bismarck (1815--1898) to head a new ministry and defy the parliament.** - **When Bismarck took office as chief minister in 1862, he declared that government would rule without parliamentary consent. Bismarck had the Prussian bureaucracy continue to collect taxes even though the parliament refused to approve the budget, and he reorganized the army. For their part, the voters of Prussia continued to express their opposition to Bismarck's policies by sending large liberal majorities to the parliament from 1862 to 1866.** - **1866 Bismarck defeated Austria decisively, middle class was in awe** - **end German Confederation, Austria expelled, North German Confederation** - **1866: Bismarck made peace with liberals asked Prussian Parliament to approve illegal spending 1862-1866, liberals chose national unity** - **Bismarck followed Napoleon III: universal male suffrage for Lower House, bypassing middle class, appeal directly to people** - **German middle class accepted monarchical authority and aristocratic superiority** - **1870 German unification** - **1889 old age pensions, to stave off calls socialism** - **1883 sickness insurance 1884 workers compensation (injury benefit), 1927 unemployment insurance** - **\'socialism\' finds its root in the Latin *sociare*, which means to combine or to share. ** - ** [social ownership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_ownership) of the [means of production](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means_of_production), as opposed to [private ownership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_ownership)** - **An early distinction between [*communism*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism) and *socialism* was that the latter aimed to only socialise production while the former aimed to socialise both [production](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_(economics)) and [consumption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_(economics)) (in the form of free access to final goods)** - **1912 German Social Democratic Party largest party** - **7. On p. 723/644/757 Hanks mentions \"revisionism\". What is revisionism? Who were the main supporters? Why was there a \"trend toward moderation\" in the working class movement in Western Europe?** **revisionism is update Marxist doctrines to reflect reality** - **Eduard Bernstein 1899 Marx prediction Verelendung proved false** - **better to win evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions and further economic development** - **Russians, Austrians radical, GB Labour gradual reform, Spain/Italy anarchists** - **moderation since living standard \>** - **8. The second half of the nineteenth century has been called the New Enlightenment. In this period science increasingly influenced society. Give two examples of this development** - **fundamental scientific discoveries** - **1. thermodynamics: relation heat and mechanical energy applied to mechanical engineering, chemical processes** - **2. electricity became a commercial form of energy** - **3. 1890 internal combustion engine fueled by petroleum** - **natural processes determined by laws, no room for God** - **Darwins theory of national selection, social Darwinism** - **9. On p. 758/645 Hanks remarks: \"Much of world history in the past two centuries can be seen as a struggle over the unfinished legacies of the late-eighteenth century revolutions in politics and economics.\" Illustrate this statement with two examples.** - **French revolution ideas reemerged after 1850: nationalism, liberalism** - **nationalism became the most dominant, 1870 Germany, Italy** - **After 1870 nationalism and militarism led colonization** - **1914 power of unified nation-states turned on itself** - **nationalism led to decolonization** - **socialism remains popular in Europe, Russia, China, Cuba** - **10. How did the spread of radical ideas and the movements for reform and revolution explored in this chapter draw on the "unfinished" political and industrial revolutions of the late eighteenth century (Chapters 22, 23)? How did conservatism, liberalism, nationalism and socialism spawn from this dual political and industrial revolution?** - **Each of the revolutionary ideologies of the early nineteenth century was in some respects connected to the dual revolution of the late eighteenth century. Obviously conservatism was a very explicit attempt to reassert the powers of the aristocracy in Europe in an attempt to return to the status quo of 1789, abolishing the newfangled ideas of the French Revolution. Just as much as conservatism, liberalism was a child of the French Revolution and made use of the ideas and thought of the French revolutionaries. Mostly in protest to the way conservatism seized power after 1815, liberalism tried to keep many of the ideas of the French Revolution (albeit less radically) alive. Concepts like equality for the law, the separation of powers in government and some forms of political participation of the people (albeit restricted) were all taken from the French Revolution. Socialism was also a protest movement against conservatism, but should be seen more as a consequence of the industrial revolution. It tried to repair the dire consequences of the shifts industry brought to society and the problems industrialization caused for the poor, who were a large section of the population. Nationalism, lastly, had reared its ugly head during the revolutionary wars. The potency of the nation as a uniting symbol nearly made Napoleon the emperor of all of Europe. At first nationalism was mostly a liberal ideology which emphasized the worth and creativity of the people, thereby again hearkening to the ideas of the French revolution. All four main ideologies of the nineteenth century cannot, therefore be seen separately from the revolutions that preceded the period.** - **1840's Europe** - **Lack of republicanism, general rule: monarchy** - **Lack of democracy, franchise was limited, France 5 % adult males** - **Two different governments:** - **1. Western Europe: constitutional monarchy France, Belgium, NL, Norway, small states western southern Germany (Baden, Saxony, Bavaria), separation powers, bicameral, basic rights, consent Parliament for Law, taxes, expenditure, no ministerial responsibility (GB had)** - **2. South East Europe: absolute monarchs, no constitution, Italian peninsula, Prussia, Austria, constrained by bureaucracy and estates** - **Political participation** - **Newspapers small, 30.000 copies, type had to be set, once or twice week, required government concession** - **Censorship** - **Caution money, deposit to pay libel verdicts** - **Political participation: festival and banquets, France 1847 leading to revolution, only affluent and educated** - **Mazzini Young Italy Marseille, secret societies, Polish revolutionaries too** - **Not in absolutist regimes** - **Liberalism** **Contemporaries spoke of constitutional monarchy** - **cautious and limited consent to the ideals of the French Revolution** - **a liberal constitution would guarantee equal treatment under the law, enshrine such basic civic rights as freedom of speech, press, association, and religion, and ensure the freedom to dispose of private property** - **Absolutism or Jacobins more likely to suppress basic rights than liberals** - **Constitutional separation executive and legislative safeguard basic rights** - **Hereditary monarch would provide continuity and stability as independent executive** - **Only in France, some liberals were republicans just like USA model** - **Society was self-regulating: limited franchise, securing civil rights, mutual checks executive and legislative: restrict governmental activity** - **Women dependent on men, employees on employers, so no vote** - **Distinction between mob and the people** - **Guizot: ''Enrichissez-vous,''** - **Equality for the law: no feudal tenures agriculture, no strikes or trade unions** - **took the lead in founding institutions that would allow workers to acquire their own property: savings banks, mutual benefit societies, and institutes of technical and vocational education.** - **Free trade, economic growth and industrialization** - **Zollverein 1834,** - **Central Italy, southern Germany against British industrialization, lead to propertyless proletarians, protect guilds** - **Friedrich List protectionist, Hungarian liberals adopted it, railroads, industry, seaport** - **Public education important** - **Anticlericalism** - **Protestants more likely liberals than Catholics,** - **Who among wealthy were not liberal?** - **1. those dependent absolutism, landowners, government contractors** - **2. religiously devout** - **by the 1840s most liberals in Europe preferred an affluent following and a politics of reform and gradual, moderate steps, to one of mass support and political confrontation** - **In the constitutional monarchies of western Europe, above all in France, under the Orléans dynasty, come to power following the revolution of 1830, liberalism became governmental.** - **French liberalism was party status quo** - **Rest Europe liberalism was oppositional political movement, Prussia, Austria and Italy dead against constitutional monarchy** - **Liberals were for equality for the law but not franchise** - **Supported ideals French revolution but they were no democrats or republicans** - **Notables, shunning violence, gradualism** - **in fact, it took the drastic, unexpected and often unwanted step of violent revolution in 1848 to bring liberals, however briefly, to power.** - **Conservatism** - **Reaction against Enlightenment ideas** - **Three main themes dominated it, historical tradition (institutions living organisms), patriarchalism (state is father, love and chastise)), and divine justification (Christian state)** - **Used as criticism of bureaucracy** - **If all men were equal why no women vote? Few wanted that.** - **Alliance throne and altar, protestant revivalism Bismarck Von Putkammern, Catholics Jesuits and Redemptorists** - **Hungarians nobles Catholics, Hungarian protestants liberal** - **Against Laissez-faire, industrialization, and economic individualism, clashed divinely inspired hierarchy, railroads can have revolutionary effect** - **Nobility Prussia, supported King, against constitution, free trade wool, grain timber exports** - **1840s conservatives on the defensive, Metternich despair** - **France 1830 Orléans, liberal regime, conservatives struggled with it but sometimes rallied to the liberal regime since it protected property and bulwark against radicalism** - **Radicalism** - **Inspired by the Jacobins** - **Mazzini, left wing Italian, Jacobins individualistic, 19^th^ century: association** - **Marx and Engels Communist Manifesto: soon in Germany proletarian revolution** - **Mid 19^th^ century radicals were democrats (universal suffrage) and republicans unlike liberals (hereditary ruler)** - **Unlike liberals they wanted a strong interventionist government** - **Advocats great European war to destroy counterrevolutionary opponents** - **Democrats** **\ ** - **Shared with liberals ant-clericalism** - **In protestant area they supported Unitarianism, this-worldly gospel of democracy and freedom** - **Among catholics, anti-clericalism was sharper: Deism or atheism** - **Democrats view on social and economic issues heterogeneous, some close to liberals, some state intervention agriculture, schooling, progressive income tax** - **Not against property or market economy** - **Socialists** **They wanted to abolish disproportion between labour and capital** - **Fourier, Owen, Saint-Simon, Cabet, Proudhon,** - **Communists began as democratic radicals** - **Communists were against Liberal constitutions** - **Socialists women were allowed to vote but not hold office** - **After 1830 revolution, more space for political organization** - **Leftist associated with youth, Young Italy, many unemployed intellectuals could not find jobs and became activists** - **Difference socialists and communists** **Under communism, there is no such thing as private property. All property is communally owned, and each person receives a portion based on what they need. A strong central government---the state---controls all aspects of economic production, and provides citizens with their basic necessities, including food, housing, medical care and education.** - **By contrast, under socialism, individuals can still own property. But industrial production, or the chief means of generating wealth, is communally owned and managed by a democratically elected government.** - **Another key difference in socialism versus communism is the means of achieving them. In communism, a violent revolution in which the workers rise up against the middle and upper classes is seen as an inevitable part of achieving a pure communist state. Socialism is a less rigid, more flexible ideology. Its adherents seek change and reform, but insist on making these changes through democratic processes within the existing social and political structure, not overthrowing that structure.** - **Communism: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." By contrast, socialism is based on the idea that people will be compensated based on their level of individual contribution to the economy.** - **Unlike in communism, a socialist economic system rewards individual effort and innovation. Social democracy, the most common form of modern socialism, focuses on achieving social reforms and redistribution of wealth through democratic processes, and can co-exist alongside a free-market capitalist economy.** - **Freedom:** - **Atlantic revolutionaries in USA were often slave owners or engaged in slave trade** - **Abolitionists made progress north** - **France: some revolutionary actors campaigned against slavery, opposition planters** - **1791 slave rebellion St. Domingue** - **1793 French representative on the island promised to abolish slavery if the slaves would help to kick the foreign powers out** - **1793 Jacobins National Convention abolished slavery** - **Framers of federalist constitution offered slavery better security than now exists** - **1800 Napoleon reversed abolition slavery, lasted 1848** - **France refused to recognize Haitian independence until 1825** - **100 million Francs indemnity** - **Netherlands abolished slavery only in 1863** - **Voting;** - **USA: in New Hampshire and Pennsylvania, about 90 percent of adult males could vote, around 40 percent were barred in Virginia and New York. Nationwide, about 20 percent of adult white males were excluded from voting for the House of Representatives by the 1790s. (Free black men were typically enfranchised on the same terms as white men.)** - **Women, they claimed, were unfree to begin with, since their lack of intellect and their passionate natures made them dependent on men in their day-to-day lives. Hence, nothing was lost by depriving them of the power to participate in government; this did not make women any more unfree than they already were. "Women," as one Dutch revolutionary put it, "are human, but, as they are under the supervision and protection of men, they are not citizens.** - **exclusion of servants and the poor, who were deemed too dependent on the wealthy. During debates in the French National Assembly, for instance, several speakers asserted that servants should be prevented from "active" citizenship because their dependency on their masters ensured that their votes would not express their free wills.** - **But even the laws of 1792 France continued to exclude domestic servants from suffrage, as well as the unemployed and sons still living under their father's roof.** - **USA: If the poor were given votes, Morris explained, they would surely sell them to the highest bidder. Votes should, therefore, go only to "secure and faithful guardians of liberty"---men whose property assured the independence necessary to vote according to their own will.** - **1791 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Citizen, written in reply to the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, de Gouges accused the National Assembly of hypocrisy. They played at being revolutionaries and claimed their own right to equality, but women still suffered under the "perpetual tyranny of man."** - **For all of de Gouges's eloquence, the possibility of female suffrage was not even debated in the National Assembly. In 1793, after the downfall of the monarchy, the issue was raised during debates about the new republican constitution in the Jacobin dominated convention. However, no more than a few conventionnels argued in favor of female suffrage, and the issue was never put to a vote.** - **Even more contentious was the exclusion of poor white males. In France, the introduction of census suffrage was combatted in the National Assembly by a small but assertive group of deputies including Maximilien de Robespierre.** - **in America, the Constitutional Convention overwhelmingly rejected Gouverneur Morris's proposal to limit the franchise for House of Representatives to freeholders, on the grounds that this would create an odious tyranny.** - **In short, the political vision of the Atlantic revolutionaries was riddled with inconsistencies. They fought for freedom---but they owned slaves and failed to eradicate slavery. They wanted freedom for all---but many were just as excluded from political power as they had been in the monarchies and oligarchies of the ancién regime.** - **However, what Atlantic revolutionaries envisioned was a real challenge to the status quo. This is why their example continued to inspire future revolutionaries and even, as we shall see, those who had remained largely excluded from the promise of 1776 and 1789.** - **old idea: nations and nationalism were, if not primordial, at least perennial, nationalism was fairly recent but nation itself was immemorial, coeval with recorded history** - **WW II shattered these half-conscious assumptions** - **national ideologies as well as nation states are recent in date and novel in character** - **nations and national identities are also recent and novel** - **nations and nationalism are product of modernization and modernity** - **Beginning is 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, spread through colonialism** - **consensus** **Continuous perennialism** **question1: What is nationalism? How does Blanning distinguish between political and cultural nationalism?\ How does Blanning's explanation of nationalism differ from that of Benedict Anderson and Ernest Gellner?** - **Nationalism: devotion to one\'s nation and a policy of national independence. Man depens for his well being on his patrie** - **for political nationalists, the nation comes first.** - **For cultural nationalists, cultural and political boundaries need to coincide.** - **For some cultural nationalists, cultural integrity takes precedence over political unity** - **For Blanning nationalism is not fiction but builds on history, not necessarily linked to modernization (predates this by centuries)** ** 2. As of the French Revolution many governments engaged in what is called nation-building.\ a. How was German unification gradually achieved in the period 1862-1871 under leadership of Prime Minister Bismarck of Prussia?\ b. Why did Tsar Alexander II want to modernize Russia? How did Russia try to catch up with Europe from 1856 to 1907?** - **German unification** - **1851 all German states in Zollverein except Austria, a new germany excluding Austria became economic reality** - **rapid industrialization: impetus middle class liberals** - **1859 Liberals assumed control Parliament in Prussia** - **1859 uprising Italy convinced Wilhelm I that political change and war with Austria or France was possible** - **raised taxes and increased defense budget, Prussian Parliament rejected the budget (desire less militaristic society) in 1862** - **1862 declared that government would rule without Parliamentary consent** - **1866 Austro-Prussian War kicked Austria out of German politics** - **dissolution German Conferederation, new North German Confederation, federal government controlled army/foreign affairs** - **Parliament approved after the fact all illegal spending 1862-1866, nationalism \> liberalism** - **lower house univeersal male suffrage, bypassing middle class** - **1870 Emscher Depeche, War with France, south German states joined German Empire** - **1850s Russia poor agrarian society, growing population, serfdom** - **1853-56 Russia lost Crimean War, defeated French, British, Sardinians, Ottomans** - **military disaster forced Tsar Alexander II modernization** - **1861 freeing Serfs, collective ownership, limited agric. improvement** - **reform legal system: independent courts, equality before the law, relaxed censorship, patially liberalized policies Jews** - **subsidized railway construction, export grain** - **expansion of Russian Empire in the east** - **1881 anarchist murdered tsar Alexander II, political modernization frozen** - **massive industrial surge 1890s under Finance Minister Sergei Witte, promoted Russian industry with high tariffs** - **1903 Russia influence China, North Korea** - **1905 Japan defeats Russia** - **October 1905 strike, tsar Nicholas II October Manifest: elected Duma, 1907 liberals disappointed and tsar peddled back** - **Russia partially modernized, conservative constitutional monarchy with agrarian but industrializing economy** - **What was the role of war in the process of creating a unified German state?** **1866 Franco-Austrian War** - **1870 Franco-Prussian War** - **it took a war to create German unification** - **4. The French state also practiced nation building in the nineteenth century. Discuss the diversity of France in the nineteenth century. ** - **When did an idea of Frenchness become a significant aspect of the identity of the peoples of France?** - **1870's standard French was foreign language for half population** - **Breton, Flemish, German dialects, Catalan, various forms of the langue d'oc, multitude dialects northern French, the langue d'oil** - **Policemen, clergy, judges, soldiers needed interpreters** - **Pays was not the nation but the home district, compatriot** - **1891 standard time, but locals had their own, local weight/measures long after French Revolution throughout 19^th^ century** - **Huge gulf between city and countryside** - **Patchwork of local and regional economies, own fairs, banks, stock exchanges** - **Weber: very late transition of peasants to Frenchmen, last quarter 19^th^ century** - **French identity theoretical, most maps were of the region** - **Heritage French revolution: French nation** - **Federalism speak Breton, hatred of the Republic German, counter-revolution Italian, fanaticism Basque** - **5. How did the French state try to create a unified nation? Use [Tombs] in your answer.** - **Road system Napoleon to Louis Philippe late 1840s** - **1842 Railway law** - **Railroad: France became more national, Banque de France\>, local stock exchanges \, cheap train tickets, affordable bicycles, expensive cars, special glories of France** - **1913 French language of good manners and being up to date, patois was for family** - **6. What was being French supposed to involve? ** - **Linguistic particularism discouraged by secondary and higher education** - **Every political party stood for France one and indivisible, especially the Left** - **What was being French supposed to involve?** - **1. la grande nation, with complete history** - **2. guardian of glorious heritage of ancient world** - **3. French was the most perfect language: precise, harmonious, sweet, clear** - **4. France uniquely complete beautiful, natural frontiers, symmetrical, well proportioned and regular** - **5. mission civilisatrice towards less lucky societies** - **6. French civilization was most polite and sophisticated, its women most elegant, French products highest quality, Debussy deplored the influence of Wagner, chauvinist** - **Romanticism was a revolt against French classicism** - **Nagging fears about decline and decadence** - **7. What was the attitude of the French conservatives to this vision? ** - **Catholicism, the eldest daughter of the Church** - **Protector of the papacy Clovis conversion 496 Reims** - **Droit Divin Bourbon, legitimists** - **Joan of Arc** - **8. In what areas of France did regional separatism persist? Use [Tombs.]** - **1870 half of France spoke French** - **Breton, Basque, Flemish, German dialects, Catalan, langue d'oc, langue d'oil (north)** - **Separatists: Basques, Breton, Catalan, Flemish, Corsican** - **6. Explain: \"the separate sphere ideology strengthened\" (Hanks, p. 757).** **Major changes in the class structure and family life occurred, as the separate spheres ideology strengthened, and the class structure became more complex and diversified** - **economic conditions improved, only women in poor families tended to work outside the home** - **ideal became separate spheres, the strict division of labour by sex** - **well-paid jobs were off-limits to women, woman\'s wage was less than a man\'s** - **marriage between older men and younger women** - **working class lacked the means for separate spheres** - **1. What is "new imperial history" and how does it differ from more traditional scholarship on empires?** - **2. How does the so-called "hub-and-spoke" or "core-and-periphery" model explain the workings of empires?** - **What is some of the main criticism that historians have voiced on this model?** - **What alternative model has been developed?** - **3. Explain the importance of resistance in understanding the workings of empires. Give a concrete example to illustrate your answer.** - **How were empires intertwined with the notion of masculinity? ** - **4. In your view, can we speak of a modern or new imperialism that was different from earlier efforts? Provide concrete arguments and evidence.** - ** 6. What is new imperialism? What is the difference with the old imperialism?** - **7. What are the causes of the new imperialism?** - **8. What arguments were put forward by European and American imperialists in favor of their imperialist ambitions? How did critics respond?** - **1. What is "new imperial history" and how does it differ from more traditional scholarship on empires?** - **Most considerations of empires have tended to view them in political and military terms, that is, as territorial conquests by an established state. This has shaped popular understandings of empire. More recently, "new imperial history" has introduced a more flexible conceptualization of empire, one that stresses power inequalities in many realms rather than the concentration on politics, technology and the military that has traditionally dominated both scholarly and popular view of empire.** - **2. How does the so-called "hub-and-spoke" or "core-and-periphery" model explain the workings of empires?** - **Two models of describing the relationship between the colonizer and colonized, or metropole and colony, predominate in studies of empire. The more traditional paradigm is the so-called "hub-and-spoke" or "core-and-periphery" model. It posits a stable, already-formed, ´civilized" core that projected governmental organization, personnel, technology, financial means, religion, culture out into various peripheral, colonial spaces. In return, the metropole received raw materials for the benefit of metropolitan economic development.** - **What is some of the main criticism that historians have voiced on this model?** - **This model has been under attack since the late 19^th^ C (see names of several critics): this historiography sought to critique European imperialism by, first, bringing European and colonial histories in the same analytical frame, and second, showing how much the imperial/colonial relationship led to the development of Europe -- conceptually, economically, culturally and politically.** - **This historiography was developed further in the 1980s and 1990s, focused mostly on Britain: British culture and politics developed in tandem with British imperialism. Networks *between* colonies were also part of the process.** - **What alternative model has been developed?** - **Focus on networks has led to the second model of imperial formation, that of the web, as discussed above. This web or network model accounts for multi-directional flows and influences within an empire.** - **3. Explain the importance of resistance in understanding the workings of empires. Give a concrete example to illustrate your answer.** - **Robinson's and Gallagher's argument: colonial administration was much more reactionary, fractured and less focused than previous scholarship had acknowledged. Resistance in colonial spaces shaped how empires operated. This resistance could also have global implications (i.e. inspired resistance in other places).** - **Resistance came in many forms, not just through armed rebellion or organized political protest.** - **This implies that the ability to dominate an area or population in physical, military terms was merely one way in which imperial networks were developed and maintained.** - **Thus, if we want to study how empire worked, we have to study the everyday negotiations that people engaged in. By emphasizing this negotiated quality of encounters within the webs of empire, we also circumvent the tendency to divide people and histories into "resistor" and "collaborator" categories. Imperial social formation was far too complex for that.** - **4. In your view, can we speak of a modern or new imperialism that was different from earlier efforts? Provide concrete arguments and evidence.** - **Discussing the differences between imperialism before and after 1750 is tricky for two reasons. First is the pervasive Eurocentrism embedded in the concepts of modernity and modern imperialism (see e.g. Said). Second, what quality or quantity of change is significant enough to necessitate the creation of a new category? Was modern imperialism different than what came before in degree or in kind?** - **There is much that speaks to the continuity of imperialism over time, particularly when we understand how empires built upon previous formations. What is most significant about imperialism in the last 300 years, however, is the enlarged scale, acceleration, and impact of imperial activities across the world.** - **At any length, empires were instrumental to the modern transformations (industrialization and other changes) and are key in explaining differences and unevenness in development across space and time in the history of globalization. See the British Empire and how its industrial development was intricately bound up with imperialism and slavery.** - **6. What is new imperialism? What is the difference with the old imperialism?** - **Old imperialism, from 1816-1880 limited economic penetrationof non-Western territories which had left a China or Japan \'opened\' but politically independent** - **New Imperialism1880-1914 seizure of almost all of Africa, Europe\'s extension of political control in Asia** - **. What are the causes of the new imperialism?** - **Economic motives: GB was losing its industrial leadership, Long Depression 1873-1879 lead high tariffs, unemployment, serach for markets led imperial expansion** - **colonies important for political and diplomatic reasonscrucial to national security, military power and prestige** - **Social Darwinism, brutal competition among races** - **technology: rapidly firing machine gun, quinine controlled malaria, steam power, railroad** - **colonialism to divert attention from domestic issues, national unity, good fro workers and capitalists** - **pressure groups: shipping companies, settlers want land, missionaries wanted to stop slave trade and spread religion, military high-paid positions** - **8. What arguments were put forward by European and American imperialists in favor of their imperialist ambitions? How did critics respond?** **civilizing mission: education, medicine, higher living standards** - **protect colonized from ethnic warfare, slave trade within Africa** - **peace and stability permitted spread Christianity** - **critics: Hobson: economic needs unregulated capitalism, divert attention domestic reform** - **Joseph Conrad Heart of darkness, pure selfishness Europeans** - **double standard: democracy in Europe, military dictatorship empire** - **1. In what ways did the British try to fight slavery? Why did the British abolish slavery?** - **After 1775 campaign abolition UK. Immorality of human bondage. British women. UK 1807 slave trade illegal (ban on slave imports). 1833 abolition slavery in most colonies** - **British navy began seize slave runners' ships. Less than 10 % of all slave ships caught. Slaves were set free in Sierra Leone and Liberia** - **USA banned slave trade 1808, slaves children (natural increase), 1865 slavery abolished 13th amendment** - **Demand slaves high Brazil, Cuba sugar and coffee plantations until 1860s** - **Slave trade West Africa \ but in 1860s \** - **Islam aproved slavery of non-muslims and heretics, 1900 Sokoto had between 1 million and 2,5 million slaves** - **East Africa, 1837 Sayid Said, sultan of Oman conquered Mombassa (Kenya), Zanzibar, slave based plantations, control of East African coast (Swahili). 1870 prior Christian armies, it appeared most East and Central Africa would accept islam within a generation** - **3. What is the scramble for Africa? What was agreed at the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)? What were the most important imperialist powers?** - **Get a piece of African cake** - **France, Germany, Britain, Belgium, Spain, Italy** - **Berlin Conference 1884-85: Africans not invited, claims African territory required effective occupation, treaties local leaders, economic development, suppress slavery, care for natives moral and material well-being** - **primary goal was commerce** - **1880 Europeans controlled 20 % Africa, 1914 90 %** - **Only Ethiopia and Liberia independent** - **Missionaries publicized horrors of slave trade (Atl. Slavetrade abolished late 1860s)** - **King Leopold II Congo Free State, promising civilization and Christianity** - **German protectorates: Kamerun, German SouthWest Africa, German East Africa** - **Bismarck worked withJules Ferry against the British** - **French expanded West Africa, Congo River** - **British enlarged enclaves West Africa, northward from Cape Colony, westward from Wast African coast** - **4. In what way did the development of South Africa diverge from the rest of sub-Saharan Africa? Discuss the relations between the main three parties in South Africa in the age of imperialism.** - **Whites settled in lage numbers, modern capitalist industry, British imperialist waged all-out war** - **British took posesion of the Dutch Cape Colony during Napoleonic Wars, 20.000 free Dutch citizens, 25.000 African slaves** - **After 1815 three parties: African chiefdoms, Boers (Afrikaners), British colonial forces** - **Shaka's war led to Zulu, Tswana, Swazi, Ndebele, Sotho, by 1890 largely subdued by Dutch and British invaders** - **1834-1838 British abolished slavery, 1835 Afrikaners Great Trek North** - **British ruled Cape Colony and Natal, Afrikaners Orange Free State, Transvaal, African people lost most of their land** - **Discovery diamond 1867 Kimberley, gold 1886 Transvaal** - **Cecil Rhodes, De Beers, blacks bad jobs, added Southern and Northern Rhodesia (Rudd concession)** - **1889 Rhodes royal charter, Occupy Matabeleland with Maxim guns** - **1899-1902 Anglo-Boer War (gold was in hands Transvaal Afrikaner)** - **British promised Afrikaners representative government in return for surrender 1902** - **1910 Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal formed new self-governing Union of South Africa, white minority power, Afrikaners outnumbered British and regained land, South Africa segregation, after 1945 racial separation, apartheid** - **5. What is the Tanzimat? Why was it launched, and why did these \"regulations\" fail?** - **Tanzimat: reforms 1839-1876, constitution, short-lived Parliament, equality for the law (muslims, christians Jews), security life and property, modern bureaucracy, slavery \ - **World Market** - **Africa was the second continent that Islam spread into, which explains why almost one-third of World Muslim population resides in this continent.** - **the total African population increased from 79 million in 1870, to 227 million in 1950 to 1,307 million by 2020,** - **the percentage of Muslims in Africa decreased from 47% in 1870, to 44% in 1950, to 41% by 2020.** - **Christians 49 %** - **1913 value world trade 25 x 1800** - **Prices of raw materials and manufactured lower 1913 than 1800** - **Railroads dovetailed exports to West, steam power** - **Africa and Asia new products: jute, rubber, cotton, peanut, coconut oil, improved transportation** - **Suez canal 1869 and Panama canal 1914, modern ports** - **¾ investment went to other European countries, USA, Canada, Australia, NewZealand, Latin America** - **Victims Natives (Maoris, Aborigines, Native Americans, other native people** - **Africa: From Slave Trade to Colonial Rule** - **Transatlantic trade disappeared late 1860s, palmoil (lubricant, soap), peanut** - **Early 19^th^ century Islam expanded south Sahara desert** - **After 1880 scramble for Africa, 1900 consolidation** - **1807 British Parliament slave trade illegal, British seized slave runners' ships settled slaves in Freetown (Sierra Leone) and Liberia (1821 freed American slaves)** - **USA banned slave imports 1808, natural increase children slaves** - **Expansion slave trade across Sahara, Indian ocean until 1860s** - **Most intensive use slaves within Africa** - **West African women's active involvement trade, 1880s imperial subordination** - **Sudanic Savannah, West and East** - **1. Vast belt grassland below Sahel** - **2. Islam was here 800-1800, merchants, city, rulers** - **3. Peasants and Nomads animists** - **4. 18^th^ century Islamic revival, jihads against animist rulers and corrupt Islamic states** - **5. Sokoto caliphate, Uhtman jihad 1804, expanding islam into Sudan, 1809 new Sokoto caliphate** - **6. Sokoto constitution based on Islamic history and law** - **7. Islam approved slavery for non-muslims and muslim heretics** - **8. 1900 Sokoto had perhaps 2,5 million slaves** - **9. 1837 Sultan Oman conquered Mombasa Kenya, slave shipments through Zanzibar to Arabia and Ottoman Empire** - **10. 1870 Christian missionaries and Western armies arrived** - **Berlin Conference 1884-85, Bismarck** - **Rules for imperialist competition** - **Claims had to rest on effective occupation** - **Recognized Leopold's rule Congo Free State** - **Care for natives moral and material well-being** - **Bring Christianity and civilization** - **Suppress slavery and slave trade** - **These ideas distant second, primary goal was commerce** - **Scramble for Africa** - **French expanded West-Africa** - **British enlarged West-African enclaves, northward cape colony and westward from East African coast, southward of Egypt** - **Brits met opposition Eastern Sudan Mahdi, 1885 Mahdi won Khartoum, Lord Kitchener defeated him 1898, modern machine gun** - **Leopold II's Congo Free State: slavery and savagery, missionaries kept out, ivory, rubber, red rubber colony, 1908 Leopold gave colony to Belgium** - **Southern Africa** - **Different development: whites settled large numbers, modern capitalist industry, British imperialists waged all-out war** - **During Napoleonic Wars British took Dutch Cape Colony** - **20.000 free Dutch citizens, 25.000 African slaves, mixed race** - **Zulu king Shaka's wars created Zulu, Tswana, Swazi, Ndebele, Sotho** - **By 1890 these states subdued by Dutch and British** - **1838-1868 British abolished slavery Cape colony, racial equality law** - **1836 10.000 Afrikaner Great Trek northward, 1845 other group joined** - **1875 British in Cape Colony and Natal, Afrikaners Orange Free State, Transvaal, African people exploited majority** - **1867 discovery diamonds Kimberley** - **1886 gold Johannesburg, Transvaal Republic** - **Financed Cecil Rhodes, De Beers mining, blacks low wage positions** - **1888-1893 Rhodes used missionaries to add Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) as British protectorates** - **Misled Rudd concession, British occupied Matabele land** - **Transvaal gold in Afrikaner hands. 1899-1902 Anglo-Boer War** - **War divided whites but blacks were biggest losers** - **1910 Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal new self-governing union South Africa** - **Afrikaners outnumbered English-speakers, regained power, modern segregated society under joint British-Afrikaner government** - **After 1945 even harsher apartheid** - **Colonialism's impact after 1900** - **Weakened or shattered traditional social order** - **Good government meant law and order, small army, African police, modern bureaucracy taxation** - **Education and public health limited** - **Railroads: shipment raw materials and import manufactured, quick troop movements, small peasants wages for first time** - **Cautious anti slavery, otherwise revolt muslim slave holders, many slaves ran away, rapid decline slavery** - **Forced labour until 1920** - **Decline nomadic herding, world oriented cash economy** - **New imperialism 1880-1914** - **1816-1880 limited economic penetration, China/Japan opened but independent** - **Late 19th century recalled old colonial empires 17^th^ 18^th^ century** - **Basic causes new imperialism:** - **1. economic motives, UK lost industrial leadership, long depression 1873-1879, protectionism (except NL, UK), exports empire** - **2. political and diplomatic reasons, prestige** - **3. social Darwinism, racial struggle, conquest inferior people just** - **4. military superiority: machine gun, quinine, steam power** - **5. divert attention domestic problems** - **6. special interest: shipping companies, settlers, missionaries** - **Civilizing mission** - **Rationalize racism** - **Protect colonized from ethnic warfare, slave trade, exploitation by white settlers** - **White man's burden, USA rule Philippines** - **Spread of Christianity** - **African and Asian Resistance** - **Western expansion threatened traditional ruling classes, economies** - **Missionaries provoked crisis of identity** - **West superior military technology** - **Divide and conquer, privilege to special groups** - **Ruling indirectly through local elite, built on sand** - **Nonconformists desire for dignity** - **Potential leaders found West justification protest (liberalism, self-determination, nationalism, Marxism)** - **Decline and reform Ottoman Empire** - **1750 Ottomans and European equal** - **Since 1750 Ottomans fell behind science, industrial skill, military technology** - **Decline sultan's slave army, janissary corps became hereditary and corrupt and opposed innovation that undermine their status** - **Local governors became increasingly independent** - **Jannisaries refused Christian equipment, executed Sultan Selim III 1807** - **1826 Jannisaries destructed and abolished** - **1831 Ottoman governor Egypt Muhammad Ali occupied Syria** - **Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II only survived with aid Britain, Russia, Austria,in 1840 again** - **1839-1876 liberal Ottoman radical reform, Tanzimat (constitution and Parliament)** - **Muslim, Christian, Jewish equality for the law, free trade, foreign merchants operate freely, slavery curtailed** - **Modernization like Russia Peter the Great and Japan Meiji era** - **Tanzimat only partial success** - **Reforms required new generation well-trained and trustworthy officials** - **Liberalism failed to halt nationalism among Christians Balkans** - **Did not curtail appetite of Western imperialism** - **Europe bankers gained stranglehold Ottoman finances** - **Equal rights religions led religious dispute secularists and conservatives, worsened interference great powers** - **Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) abandoned liberalism, repressive** - **Egypt: From reform to British Occupation** - **Early 16^th^ century Ottoman conquest** - **1798 Napoleon invaded Egypt, occupation 3 years** - **1805 Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali (1769-1849)** - **Powerful army, reformed government, promoted industry** - **Occupied Syria, withdrew and got hereditary rule Egypt and Sudan** - **Forced peasants to grow crops European markets, Europeans elite** - **His son Ismail 1863-1879 cotton production, 1869 Suez canal** - **Arabic of the masses official language** **Rise of global inequality** - **1. West used science, technology, capitalist organization, critical world view to create wealth** - **2. West used its political, economic and military power to steal much of its riches through rapacious colonialism** - **Analysis: wealth creating potential technology and organization was great, GB used political power to dominate world economy, lion's share wealth created flowed to the West and to tiny indigenous elite** - **1. How was India ruled before the Great Mutiny 1857? What is the Great Mutiny? What were its causes? How did this affect British rule? Mention a few socioeconomic and political effects of British rule. Was British rule in India, on balance, a force for good?** - **Mughal Empire 1526-1857, before British rule, muslim empire** - **Great mutiny 1857, 1857 Great revolt sepoys (fat from cow and pigs to grease rifles, high taxation, incorporation low caste soldiers army** - **After 1858 India ruled by British Parliament, 3500 white civil servants India, population 300 million, direct British rule 1858-1947** - **Slavery outlawed, Sati (widow suicide) banned 1809, legal protection of widow remarriage 1856, infanticide (girls) banned 1870** - **Large plantations, tenant farming led to landlessness logging deforestation, simpler property laws, rail road, irrigation, British textile machinery destroyed the Indian weavers, cholera \, high

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