Introduction to Psychology Midterms PDF

**CHAPTER 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT** **DEVELOPMENT** - refers to the physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and by environmental influences (nurture). - **STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:** (womb to t...

**CHAPTER 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT** **DEVELOPMENT** - refers to the physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and by environmental influences (nurture). - **STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:** (womb to tomb) - **Infancy** - the developmental stage that begins at birth and continues at one year of age. - **Childhood** - the period between infancy and the onset of puberty. - **Adolescence** - the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. - **Adulthood** - including emerging, early, middle and older adulthood. - **Death** - the preparations for and eventual facing of death. a. **Erik Erikson** - psychologist and psychoanalyst, proposed a model of life-span development that provides a useful guideline for thinking about the changes we experience throughout life. - Believed that each life stage has a unique challenge that the person who reaches it must face. - According to Erikson, successful development involves dealing with and resolving the goals and demands of each of the life stages in a positive way. **PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT BY ERIK ERIKSON** b. **Jean Piaget** - developed his theories of child development by observing the behaviors of children. - Piaget argued that children do not just passively learn but also actively try to make sense of their worlds. c. **Schemas** - patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help them remember, organize, and respond to information. - Piaget thought that when children experience new things, they attempt to reconcile the new knowledge with existing schemas. **TWO DISTINCT METHODS:** - **Assimilation** - they use already developed schemas to understand new information. - attempting to interpret new information within the framework of existing knowledge. - **Accommodation** - involves learning new information, and thus changing the schema. - making small changes to that knowledge in order to cope with things that don't fit those existing frameworks. - **Object Permanence** - refer to the child's ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be retrieved. - **Egocentric** - inability of young children to view transitions. Unable to readily see and understand other people's viewpoints. - **Theory of Mind** - Developmental psychologists defined it as the ability to take another person's viewpoint, and the ability to do so increases rapidly during the preoperational stage. - **Conservation** - important milestone during the concrete operational stage. The understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object. - **The zone of Proximal Development** - One of Vygotsky's well-known concepts. He defined it as "the distance between the actual developmental levels as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." **4 TYPES OF PARENTING STYLES:** - **Authoritarian** - focus on obedience, punishment over discipline. - **Authoritative** - create positive relationship, enforce rules. - **Permissive** - don't enforce rules, 'kids will be kids. - **Uninvolved** - provide little guidance, nurturing or attention. **PHYSICAL CHANGES: MIDDLE ADULTHOOD** - **MENOPAUSE AND ANDROPAUSE** - Between ages 40 and 60, physical vitality (such as endurance and strength) somehow decline. - Some changes are still driven by genetic maturation, especially the end of our reproductive years. - **THE END OF REPRODUCTIVE YEARS** - There is a gradual decline in sexual activity in adulthood, although sexuality can continue throughout life. - Around age 50, women enter menopause (the end of being able to get pregnant). - **PHYSICAL CHANGES WITH AGE** - The following abilities decline as we age: - visual acuity, both sharpness and brightness. - hearing, especially sensing higher pitch. - reaction time and general motor abilities. - neural processing speed, especially for complex and novel tasks. **Exercise can slow the aging process** - Exercise can: - build muscles and bones. - stimulate neurogenesis (in the - hippocampus) and new neural connections. - improve cognition. - reduce the risk of dementia. **Coping with death and dying** - Individual responses to death may vary; - Grief is more intense when death occurs unexpectedly (especially if also too early on the social clock). - There is NO standard pattern or length of the grieving process. - It seems to help to have the support of friends or groups, and to face the reality of death and grief while affirming the value of life. **5 STAGES OF COPING WITH DEATH:** - **DENIAL** - **ANGER** - **BARGAINING** - **DEPRESSION** - **ACCEPTANCE** **CHAPTER 6: CLASSICAL AND OPERNAT CONDITIONING** **LEARNING** - a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. It involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience. **Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)** - a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. **Classical Conditioning** - a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and consequently, to anticipate events. - **Three phases of classical conditioning:** - **Before Conditioning** - **During Conditioning** - **After Conditioning** 1. **Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)** - a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. 2. **Unconditioned Response (UCR)** - a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. 3. **Neutral Stimulus (NS)** - a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. 4. **Conditioned Stimulus (CS)** - a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. 5. **Conditioned Response (CR)** - the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus. **KEY PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN PSYCHOLOGY** - **Acquisition** - the initial stage of learning, when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During this phase, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. - **Extinction** - when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. (process of unlearning) - **Spontaneous Recovery** - a phenomenon of Pavlovian conditioning that refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time following extinction. - **Generalization** - occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does. - **Discrimination** - occurs when the organism learns to differentiate between CS and other similar stimuli. - **Operant Conditioning** - sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through this, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. **Edward Thorndike** - a Psychologist who proposed what he called the law of effect. - According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. **TWO KINDS OF REINFORCEMENT** - **Positive Reinforcement** - something is added to encourage behavior. - **Negative Reinforcement** - something is removed to encourage behavior. **TWO KINDS OF PUNISHMENT** - **Positive Punishment** - something is added to discourage behavior. - **Negative Punishment** - something is removed to discourage behavior. a. **Reinforcement Schedule** - a rule stating which instances of behavior, if any, will be reinforced. **TWO BROAD CATEGORIES** - **Continuous Schedule** - every instance of a desired behavior is reinforced. - **Partial Schedule** - only reinforce the desired behavior occasionally. - described as either fixed or variable and as either interval or ratio. **4 KINDS OF PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES** - **Fixed-Ratio** - is a schedule in which the reinforcement is distributed after a set number of responses. - **Fixed-Interval** - A schedule in which the reinforcement is distributed after a set interval of time if one response is completed. - **Variable-Ratio** - A variable ratio reinforcement schedule is similar, but the number of responses isn't set. Reinforcements are distributed after a random number of responses. - **Variable-Interval** - also distributes reinforcements after a certain amount of time, but that amount of time varies after each reinforcement is distributed. Often, the reinforcements feel like they are given at "random" intervals. b. **CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT** - the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. - This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between the behavior and response. c. **Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule** - reinforce the desired behavior occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower learning since it is initially more difficult to make the association between behavior and reinforcement. - produce behavior that is more resistant to extinction. **SCHEDULES OF PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT** - **Ratio Schedules** - based on how many responses have occurred. - **Interval Schedules** - based on how much time has elapsed. - **Fixed Schedule** - the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The schedule is predictable. - **Variable Schedule** - the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements changes randomly. The schedule is unpredictable. - **Ratio Schedule** - occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted. - **Interval Schedule** - involves reinforcing a behavior after a period of time has passed. **CHAPTER 7: MEMORY** **Memory** - an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer. - the set of processes used to encode, store and retrieve information over periods of time. a. **ENCODING** - involves the input of information into the memory system. - we get information into our brains through this process. - Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains level or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect concepts to existing concepts. - encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing. - **Automatic Processing** - encoding of details like time, space, frequency and the meaning of words. - Usually done without any conscious awareness. - **Effortful Processing** - required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. b. **STORAGE** - the retention of the encoded information. - the creation of a permanent record of information. **THREE DISTINCT STAGES:** - These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). - **SENSORY MEMORY** - storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. - It is very brief storage -- up to a couple of seconds. - If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system. - **Short-Term Memory (STM)** - the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it readily available for a short period of time. - It is also known as primary or active memory. - Essential for daily functioning, which is why experiencing short-term memory loss can be frustrating and even debilitating. - Short term memory is very brief. When it is not rehearsed or actively maintained, they last mere seconds. - Short term memory is limited. It is commonly suggested that it can hold only seven items at once, plus or minus two. - **Long-Term Memory** - unlimited capacity. c. **RETRIEVAL** - getting the information out of memory and back into awareness. (the third function) - **CAPACITY** - the amount of information that can be stored in short term memory can vary. - In 1956, in an influential paper titled, **"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two,"** psychologist George Miller suggested that people can store between fife and nine items in short-term memory. **SHORT TERM VS. WORKING MEMORY** - **Short term memory** is super quick. It stores information briefly. - **Working memory** is related to short term memory, but it lasts slightly longer and is involved in the manipulation of information. **Three-Store Model** - suggests that memory consists of three basic stores: - **Sensory** - **Short-Term** - **Long Term** - each of these can be distinguished based on storage capacity and duration. - **Maintenance Rehearsal** - can help move memories from short-term memory to long-term memory. - **Chunking** - one memorization technique that can facilitate the transfer of information into long term memory. - this approach involves organizing information into more easily learned groups, phrases, words, or numbers. - **Mnemonics** - easily remembered mnemonic phrases, abbreviations, or rhymes can help move short term memories into long term storage. - Example: **ROY G BIV** - an **acronym** that represents the first letter of each color of the rainbow - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. - **Sleep** - plays an essential role in memory formation. Researchers suggest that sleeping after you learn something new is one of the best ways to turn new memories into lasting ones. **LONG TERM MEMORY IS DIVIDED INTO TWO TYPES** - **Explicit** - those we consciously try to remember and recall. (declarative) - Includes episodic and semantic memory. - **Implicit** - memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. (non-declarative) - Includes procedural memory and things learned through conditioning. - **Forgetting** - failure in memory retrieval. **DIFFERENT WAYS TO MEASURE** - **Recall** - people who have been asked to memorize something, such as a list of terms, might be asked to recall the list from memory. - This method might involve the use of the following: - **Free Recall** - recalling items without hints. - **Prompted Recall** - utilizing hints to trigger memories. - **Recognition** - involves identifying information that was previously learned. **THEORIES ABOUT FORGETTING** - Well-known memory researcher **Elizabeth Loftus** has proposed four key explanations for why forgetting occurs. a. **Interference Theory** - forgetting is the result of different memories interfering with one another. The more similar two or more events are to one-another, the more likely interference will occur. - **Serial Position Effect** - the tendency to recall the first and last items of a list. - **Retroactive Interference** - happens when newly acquired information interferes with old memories. (difficulty in old information) - **Proactive Interference** - occurs when previously learned information makes it more difficult to form new memories. (difficulty in new information) - **Decay Theory Of Forgetting** - according to the trace theory of memory, physical and chemical changes in the brain results in a memory **"trace."** - the events that happen between the formation of a memory and the recall of the memory have no impact on recall. b. **Trace Theory** - proposes that the length of time between the memory and recalling that information determines whether the information will be retained or forgotten. c. **Retrieval Failure Theory** - sometimes the memories are there, but we just can't seem to access them. Two of the basic reasons for this failure in memory retrieval are related to encoding failures and lack of retrieval cues. - a common reason why we don't remember information is because it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. d. **Cue-Dependent Theory Of Forgetting** - other researchers have suggested that sometimes information is actually present in memory, but that it cannot be recalled unless retrieval cues are present. - These cues are elements that were present at the time that the actual memory is encoded. 1. **KEEP LEARNING** 2. **USE ALL YOUR SENSES** 3. **BELIEVE IN YOURSELF** 4. **ECONOMIZE YOUR BRAIN USE** 5. **REPEAT WHAT YOU WANT TO KNOW** 6. **SPACE IT** 7. **MAKE A MNEMONIC** **CHAPTER 8: INTELLIGENCE** **INTELLIGENCE** - refers to the mental capacity to learn from experiences, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one's environment. \- includes skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, learning quickly, and understanding complex ideas. **THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE** - range from having one general intelligence to certain primary mental abilities and multiple category-specific intelligences. **BINET-SIMON SCALE** - the creation of this in the early 1900s, intelligence tests, now referred to as intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, are the most widely-known and used measure for determining an individual's intelligence. **SPEARMAN'S THEORY OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE** - known as the two-factor theory and states that general intelligence or \"g\" is correlated with specific abilities or \"s\" to some degree. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g factor. **"G" FACTOR** - linked to the general ability. \- reflects the capability of a person in doing the general mental ability tasks. **"S" FACTOR** - linked to the specific ability. \- responsible for recognizing the specific abilities of a person. **INTELLIGENCE** - has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively. **ROBERT STENBERG** - define intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context. **TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE** - it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg, 1988): - **PRACTICAL** - street smarts and common sense. - **CREATIVE** - imaginative and innovative problem solving. - **ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE** - academic problem solving and computation. **MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY** - proposed by Howard Gardener, Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. **NINE INTELLIGENCES:** - **LINGUISTIC** - **LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL** - **MUSIC** - **BODILY KINESTHETIC** - **SPATIAL** - **INTERPERSONAL** - **INTRAPERSONAL** - **NATURALISTIC** - **EXISTENTIALIST** **EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE** - Gardner's inter and intrapersonal intelligence are often combined. \- encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways. **FOUR MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST:** - **VALIDITY** - The test must really measure what it has been designed to measure. - **RELIABILITY** - the test should give similar results even though different testers administrate it, different people\'s scores in different forms of the test are given and the same person takes that test at two or more different times. - **OBJECTIVITY** - By objectivity of a measuring instrument is meant for the degree to which equally competent users get the same results. - **NORMS** - (guidelines) are sets of scores obtained by whom the test is intended. The scores obtained by these groups provide a basic for interpreting any individual score. **EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE** - the ability to understand and manage your own emotions, as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those around you. \- The term was first coined in 1990 by researchers John Mayer and Peter Salovey, but was later popularized by psychologist Daniel Goleman. **4 ATTRIBUTES:** - **SELF MANAGEMENT** - You\'re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to changing circumstances. - **SELF AWARENESS** - You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and behavior. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self- confidence. - **SOCIAL AWARENESS** - You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize the power dynamics in a group or organization. - **RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT** - You know how to develop and maintain good relationships, communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and manage conflict. **EVIDENCE OF GENETIC INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE:** \- Identical twins who were raised separately have less similar IQs than those of identical twins who grew up in the same household. \- School attendance has an impact on IQ scores. \- Children who breastfed for 12 months or longer had a higher IQ (about 3.7 points) at age 30.6. **EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE** - are intellectual disability and giftedness. There are specific characteristics of intellectual disability and giftedness. **INTELLIGENCE** - defined as "the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences." **TWO CATEGORIES OF EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE:** - **INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY** - individuals who have significantly below-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. Intellectual disability is typically diagnosed when an individual\'s IQ (intelligence quotient) falls below 70-75. - **GIFTEDNESS** - possess exceptionally high intellectual abilities and potential in specific areas. They often demonstrate advanced cognitive skills, creativity, and exceptional talent in domains such as academics, arts, music, or sports.