Developmental Psychology Module 2-Lesson 2 PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2-Lesson 2 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. His theory described how personality...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2-Lesson 2 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult personality. His theory described how personality developed over the course of childhood. Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. Psychoanalytic Theory Suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. Psychoanalytic Theory If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating. I. The Oral Stage (birth-1) Erogenous Zone- Mouth The infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. I. THE ORAL STAGE (birth-1) The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process-- the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting. Related: Trust vs Mistrust II. ANAL STAGE- (1-3 years) Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training— the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. Success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. II. ANAL STAGE- (1-3 years) Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. II. ANAL STAGE- (1-3 years) Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive. Related: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt III. THE PHALLIC STAGE- (3-6 years) Erogenous Zone: Genitals - Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. - At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females. - Boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. III. THE PHALLIC STAGE- (3-6 years) Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy. Related: Initiative vs Guilt (Developing a sense of Purpose IV. LATENCY PERIOD- (6-puberty) Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive The superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. IV. LATENCY PERIOD- (6-puberty) The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult. Related: Industry vs Inferiority IV. THE GENITAL STAGE-(puberty-death) Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas. IV. THE GENITAL STAGE-(puberty-death) If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms. Related: Identity vs Role Confusion CRITICISMS: The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.  In Freud's psychosexual stages, the social activities that can explain later personality include: - feeding - infancy (oral stage) - toilet training - toddler (anal stage) - play with same sex parental figure and seeing sweet moments between parents - early childhood (phallic stage) - sports and school activities - middle and late childhood (latency stage) - friendship - adolescence (genital stage) PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. These crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time. PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Consider the following scenario: A three-year-old is diagnosed with bone cancer. This shows Ego Integrity versus Despair at ages 3–5 years. The child is confronted with end-of-life issues. An 80-year-old woman is mugged. This shows Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust in later adulthood. The woman must regain a sense of confidence or faith in the safety of her environment. A divorced middle-aged man is considering remarriage. This shows Intimacy versus Isolation in middle adulthood. The man is confronted with issues of intimacy. PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Consider the following scenario: A 16-year-old has the keys to his car taken away by his parents. This shows Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt in adolescence. The teenager’s parents have constrained his independence. A 35-year-old woman enjoys time with her child when she and her child can play with her child’s blocks. This shows Initiative versus Guilt in middle age. The woman is enjoying the opportunity to explore and play. A 64-year-old man is fired from his job and worries about whether he will find another one. This shows Industry versus Inferiority in later adulthood. The man is experiencing issues related to feelings of competence. PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT - Another theory which emphasize the influence of bonding and relationships particularly in infancy stage is the Attachment Theory by John Bowlby Attachment is defined as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (Bowlby, 1969, P. 194), and may be considered interchangeable with concepts such as “affectional bond” and “emotional bond.” A human being’s first attachment is often established during infancy with the primary caregiver; however, it must be noted that attachment is not unique to infant-caregiver relationships but may also be present in other forms of social relationships. PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Attachments of various kinds are formed through the repeated act of “attachment behaviors” or “attachment transactions,” a continuing process of seeking and maintaining a certain level of proximity to another specified individual (Bowlby, 1969). Because caregivers vary in their levels of sensitivity and responsiveness, not all infants attach to caregivers in the same way. PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT vJohn Bowlby (1969) believed that attachment was an all or nothing process. vHowever, research has shown that there are individual differences in attachment quality. vIndeed, one of the primary paradigms in attachment theory is that of the security of an individual’s attachment (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). Strange Situation Procedure The security of attachment in one- to two-year-old were investigated using the strange situation paradigm, in order to determine the nature of attachment behaviors and styles of attachment. Ainsworth developed an experimental procedure in order to observe the variety of attachment forms exhibited between mothers and infants. The experiment is set up in a small room with one way glass so the behavior of the infant can be observed covertly. Infants were aged between 12 and 18 months. The sample comprised of 100 middle- class American families. Attachment Styles Ainsworth (1970) identified three main attachment styles: - secure (type B), - insecure avoidant (type A), and - insecure ambivalent/resistant (type C). She concluded that these attachment styles were the result of early interactions with the mother. A fourth attachment style known as disorganized was later identified (Main, & Solomon, 1990). B: Secure Attachment Securely attached children comprised the majority of the sample in Ainsworth’s (1971, 1978) studies. Such children feel confident that the attachment figure will be available to meet their needs. They use the attachment figure as a safe base to explore the environment and seek the attachment figure in times of distress (Main, & Cassidy, 1988). B: Secure Attachment Securely attached infants are easily soothed by the attachment figure when upset. Infants develop a secure attachment when the caregiver is sensitive to their signals and responds appropriately to their needs. According to Bowlby (1980), an individual who has experienced a secure attachment 'is likely to possess a representational model of attachment figures(s) as being available, responsive, and helpful' (Bowlby, 1980, p. 242). A: Insecure Avoidant Insecure avoidant children do not orientate to their attachment figure while investigating the environment. They are very independent of the attachment figure both physically and emotionally (Behrens, Hesse, & Main, 2007). A: Insecure Avoidant They do not seek contact with the attachment figure when distressed. Such children are likely to have a caregiver who is insensitive and rejecting of their needs (Ainsworth, 1979). The attachment figure may withdraw from helping during difficult tasks (Stevenson-Hinde, & Verschueren, 2002) and is often unavailable during times of emotional distress. C: Insecure Ambivalent / Resistant Here children adopt an ambivalent behavioral style towards the attachment figure. The child will commonly exhibit clingy and dependent behavior but will be rejecting of the attachment figure when they engage in interaction. The child fails to develop any feelings of security from the attachment figure. C: Insecure Ambivalent / Resistant Accordingly, they exhibit difficulty moving away from the attachment figure to explore novel surroundings. When distressed they are difficult to soothe and are not comforted by interaction with the attachment figure. This behavior results from an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the primary caregiver. Conclusion: Ainsworth (1978) suggested the ‘caregiver sensitivity hypothesis’ as an explanation for different attachment types. Ainsworth's maternal sensitivity hypothesis argues that a child’s attachment style is dependent on the behavior their mother shows towards them. Conclusion: ‘Sensitive’ mothers are responsive to the child's needs and respond to their moods and feelings correctly. Sensitive mothers are more likely to have securely attached children. In contrast, mothers who are less sensitive towards their child, for example, those who respond to the child’s needs incorrectly or who are impatient or ignore the child, are likely to have insecurely attached children. Conclusion: Securely attached infant are associated with sensitive and responsive primary care. Insecure ambivalent attached infants are associated with inconsistent primary care. Sometimes the child’s needs are met, and sometimes they are ignored by the mother / father. Insecure-avoidant infants are associated with unresponsive primary care. The child comes to believe that communication of needs has no influence on the mother/father. Conclusion: Securely attached children develop a positive working model of themselves and have mental representations of others as being helpful while viewing themselves as worthy of respect (Jacobsen, & Hoffman, 1997). Avoidant children think themselves unworthy and unacceptable, caused by a rejecting primary caregiver (Larose, & Bernier, 2001). Ambivalent children have a negative self-image and exaggerate their emotional responses as a way to gain attention (Kobak et al., 1993). Accordingly, insecure attachment styles are associated with an increased risk of social and emotional behavioral problems via the internal working model THANK YOU FOR LISTENING