Midterm 3 Study Guide PDF

Midterm 3 Study Guide Psych 100 **[Chapter 9]** 1. **Be able to define each of the following:** a. **Object permanence.-** - The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists. b. **Egocentrism.-** - Preoperational child's difficulty in...

Midterm 3 Study Guide Psych 100 **[Chapter 9]** 1. **Be able to define each of the following:** a. **Object permanence.-** - The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists. b. **Egocentrism.-** - Preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others -  The difficulty of distinguishing between oneself and others, or of accurately understanding perspectives that are different from one\'s own. c. **Conservation (and what a lack of conservation means)** i. **This is in reference to Piaget's theory of cognitive development** - Idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed. -  A cognitive ability where a person understands that a certain quantity remains the same even when its appearance changes, like its shape or container, meaning that even if something looks different, the underlying amount stays the same; a lack of conservation indicates that someone cannot grasp this concept and might believe the quantity changes based solely on the altered appearance, often observed in young children during their developmental stages. (Preoperational stage) d. **Imaginary audience.-** - A psychological state where a person believes that others are constantly watching and evaluating them. It\'s a developmental variable that\'s often most pronounced during adolescence, but people of any age can experience it. e. **Personal fable.-** - A cognitive distortion that describes the belief that someone is unique, special, and invulnerable to life\'s problems. It\'s a core concept of adolescent egocentrism, which also includes the idea of an imaginary audience, where teens believe others are constantly evaluating them. f. **Persistent vegetative state.-** - A chronic condition where a person is in a partial state of arousal but is unaware of their surroundings. People in a PVS wake and sleep, but show no awareness of their surroundings. They may open their eyes, make sounds, or move. A PVS can be caused by severe brain damage from trauma, oxygen deprivation, or metabolic or degenerative disorders.  g. **Brain death.-** - A person who is brain dead has completely and permanently lost all brain function, including the ability to perform involuntary actions that sustain life. Brain death is equivalent to death. 2. **What was the main focus of Freud's Psychosexual theory of development? How does Erikson's theory differ from it?** 3. **Know each stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. What is the primary challenge that defines each stage? What are the ages they unfold over?** 4. **Be familiar with Piaget's cognitive theory of development. What are the stages and when do they unfold? What occurs during each stage?** h. **This is a big one -- each stage is defined by several abilities (as well as several things the child can't do). Be sure to review each one carefully.** 5. **What were some of the shortcomings of Piaget's theory?** 6. **Be familiar with each of the 3 levels (and 2 stages within each level) of Kohlberg's theory of moral development.** i. **Be able to identify which stage someone is in based on a description of their behavior.** 7. **Be familiar with Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test and what it measured.** 8. **Be able to define and recognize examples of each pattern of attachment.** 9. **Be able to define and recognize examples of each parenting style.** 10. **Be familiar with the "marshmallow test" and know what it's measuring.** 11. **Know when girls reach puberty, relative to boys (how many years apart).** 12. **Know which hormones are primarily responsible for male and female maturation.** 13. **Be familiar with the neural network view of cognitive decline and how it explains decreases in functioning that come with age.** 14. **Know the difference between brain death and a persistent vegetative state.** A [persistent vegetative state] means the person has lost higher brain functions, but their undamaged brain stem still allows essential functions like heart rate and respiration to continue. A person in a vegetative state is alive and may recover to some degree, given time. [Brain death] is the permanent and irreversible loss of all brain function, and is a legal definition of death. A person who is brain dead is unable to regain consciousness or breathe without artificial life support, and has no chance of recovery.  15. **Know each of the three phases of death and what occurs during each phase.** **Agonal Phase:** The agonal phase of death is the period of time just before death when a person\'s breathing and body are in a state of involuntary, labored breathing and reflex movements. **Clinical Death:** A medical emergency that occurs when a person\'s heart stops beating and they stop breathing. It\'s also known as cardiac arrest. **Mortality** 1. **Be able to define each of the following:** a. **Homeostasis.-** A state of equilibrium, or balance, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. b. **Self-actualization** c. **Eustress.-** Good form of stress; low to moderate in intensity; associated with positive feelings, as well as optimal health and performance d. **Distress.-** Bad form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions in performance and health 2. **What is drive theory? How does it explain motivated behavior?** Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis 3. **What is humanism and how does it differ from other branches of psychology (i.e., which does it focus on?)** Humanistic psychology looks at the individual holistically, considering their thoughts, feelings, and experiences as a whole, rather than isolating specific aspects of behavior. Unlike some other schools of thought that might emphasize negative aspects of human behavior, humanism believes people are inherently capable of positive growth and self-improvement. 4. **What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs? How does it explain human motivations?** Maslow\'s hierarchy of needs is a psychological theory that suggests human motivation is driven by a hierarchy of needs - **Levels of needs:** - **Physiological needs:** Basic needs like food, water, sleep, and shelter.  - **Safety needs:** Security and protection from harm.  - **Love and belonging needs:** Feeling accepted and loved by others, social connections.  - **Esteem needs:** Self-respect, recognition, status.  - **Self-actualization needs:** Achieving one\'s full potential, personal growth.  - **How it explains motivation:** 5. **What role do the following brain structures play in sexual behavior?** e. **Hypothalamus and medial preoptic area** - The hypothalamus, particularly the medial preoptic area (MPOA), plays a crucial role in regulating male sexual behavior. Stimulation of this area can trigger erectile responses and facilitate mating behaviors. (erection and ejaculation). - Damage to the MPOA can lead to impairments in male sexual behavior, further supporting its critical role in this function f. **Amygdala** - The amygdala receives sensory information, including visual and olfactory cues, which can be associated with potential sexual partners, triggering an emotional response. - Activation of the amygdala is linked to increased sexual arousal when exposed to sexually suggestive stimuli, while decreased activity may be associated with the consummatory phase of sexual behavior (orgasm) - The amygdala is important for assessing social cues and determining the appropriateness of sexual behavior within a given social situation. - Damage to the amygdala can disrupt normal sexual behavior, potentially leading to difficulties in recognizing sexual cues or experiencing appropriate arousal. g. **Nucleus accumbens** - When exposed to sexual cues or engaging in sexual behavior, the nucleus accumbens experiences a surge in dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward.  - This dopamine release is thought to attribute \"incentive salience\" to sexual stimuli, making them more attractive and motivating the individual to pursue sexual activity - Disruption of dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens can lead to decreased sexual motivation, even if the physical ability to perform sexual acts remains intact.  6. **What do the results of twin studies suggest about the underlying foundations of human sexual orientation?** Twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in influencing sexual orientation, as identical (monozygotic) twins are significantly more likely to share the same sexual orientation compared to fraternal (dizygotic) twins, indicating a genetic component, but not solely determining it, as not all identical twins share the same sexual orientation; meaning environmental factors also contribute to sexual orientation development. 7. **What effect does increased prenatal/perinatal testosterone exposure have on sexual orientation? What effect does decreased exposure have?** h. **How do the fraternal birth order effect and maternal immune hypothesis illustrate this?** According to current research, increased prenatal testosterone exposure is associated with a greater likelihood of a male-typical sexual orientation (attraction to females), while decreased exposure is linked to a more female-typical orientation (attraction to males); the \"fraternal birth order effect\" and \"maternal immune hypothesis\" suggest that a mother\'s immune response to male fetuses in previous pregnancies may contribute to decreased prenatal testosterone exposure in later male fetuses, potentially influencing their sexual orientation towards homosexuality.  - **Fraternal Birth Order Effect:** This phenomenon observes that men with more older brothers tend to have a higher probability of being gay. The proposed mechanism involves the mother\'s immune system developing antibodies against male-specific antigens with each male pregnancy, potentially affecting the development of the brain in subsequent male fetuses.  - **Maternal Immune Hypothesis:** This theory aligns with the fraternal birth order effect, suggesting that the antibodies produced by a mother\'s immune system against male antigens in previous pregnancies can cross the placenta and influence the developing brain of a later male fetus, potentially contributing to a non-heterosexual orientation. 8. **Know the difference between gender identity, sexual orientation, and body type. Based on the impact that hormone exposure has on each of these, does the existing science suggest these lie on a discrete/binary scale or a continuous spectrum?** - **Gender Identity:** Individual's sense of being male, female, neither of these, both of these, or another gender - **Sexual Orientation:** Emotional, romantic, and/or erotic attraction to other people or no people - **Body type:** Refers to the physical characteristics and shape of the body, including traits like height, weight, fat distribution, and muscle mass. Body type is influenced primarily by genetics and hormone exposure (both prenatal and postnatal), such as the effects of testosterone and estrogen during puberty. - - - - - - - - - 9. **What is androgenic insensitivity syndrome and what is the underlying cause?** - Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is when a person who has one X and one Y chromosome (typically seen in males) is resistant to hormones that produce a male appearance (called androgens). As a result, the person has some of the physical traits of a female, but the genetic makeup of a male. - AIS is caused by a genetic alteration that is passed along the female line to the child. Although people with AIS have XY (usual male pattern) chromosomes, the body does not respond to testosterone (the sex hormone) fully or at all. This prevents the sex development of a typical male. 10. **Be able to compare/contrast each of the following theories of emotion. How do they differ in their proposed order of reactions to a stressor?** i. **James-Lange** ** **Proposes that physiological arousal comes first, leading to the experience of emotion j. **Cannon-Bard** States that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently in response to a stressor k. **Current view (modern biopsychological view)** Incorporates both physiological and cognitive factors, highlighting that the order of reactions to a stressor can vary depending on the individual and situation, but generally involves a complex interaction between bodily responses and cognitive appraisal. **Key Differences:** - **James-Lange: **Stimulus -\> Physiological arousal -\> Emotion  - **Cannon-Bard: **Stimulus -\> Simultaneous physiological arousal and emotion** ** - **Modern Biopsychological: **Stimulus -\> Complex interaction between physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal -\> Emotion  11. **What role do the amygdala and hippocampus play in emotion and emotion regulation?** Both structures work together within the limbic system to form a complete emotional response to stimuli.  - **Amygdala:** - **Function: **Detects emotionally salient stimuli, particularly those related to fear or threat, and initiates immediate emotional responses.** ** - **Impact on memory: **Enhances the encoding and storage of emotionally charged memories.  - **Role in emotion regulation: **Can be involved in excessive emotional reactions when overly activated.  - **Hippocampus:** - **Impact on emotion regulation: **Helps to interpret and contextualize emotional experiences, contributing to a more nuanced emotional response.  - **Interaction with amygdala: **Receives information from the amygdala to integrate emotional content into memory formation.  12. **What is the relationship between hippocampus volume and susceptibility to PTSD?** Smaller hippocampal volume is associated with more severe posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms years after traumatic experiences. 13. **What are the 7 universal emotions and what is the evolutionary explanation for their universality?** The seven universal emotions, according to psychologist Paul Ekman, are: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt; these are considered universal because they are believed to have evolved as adaptive mechanisms to help humans navigate survival challenges and social interactions across different cultures, with distinct facial expressions that are generally recognized worldwide. 14. **What is the facial feedback system and how does Botox affect it?** Facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions. Botox can increase self-confidence, lessen the intensity of negative emotions, and lead to a more positive mood.  15. **Be able to compare/contrast eustress and distress.** Eustress is typically caused by positive events, such as achieving a goal or a major accomplishment. Eustress is generally perceived as a positive experience, while distress can be difficult to cope with. Distress is often caused by negative life events, such as financial difficulties or the death of a loved one. 1. **Be able to define each of the following:** a. **Entrapment:** b. **Fundamental attribution error:** Tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation c. **Actor-observer bias:** Phenomenon of explaining other people's behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces d. **Self-serving bias:** Tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or external attributions for negative outcomes e. **Just-world hypothesis:** Ideology common in the United States that people get the outcomes they deserve f. **Cognitive dissonance:** Psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person's behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one's positive self-perception g. **Social identity:** The part of a person\'s self-concept that comes from their perceived membership in a social group h. **Ethnocentrism:** The belief that your own cultural or ethnic group is superior to other culture or ethnic groups. 2. **Be familiar with the Milgram Obedience Study and the Stanford Prison Experiment. What were the findings of each study?** 3. **What are some the motivators of obedience (slide 4). How does entrapment lead to obedience in extreme situations?** Motivators for obedience include the perception of legitimate authority, fear of negative consequences, desire for social approval, and the belief that the authority figure is knowledgeable or has the right to make demands; \"entrapment\" leads to obedience in extreme situations by gradually escalating commitment, creating a sense of dependence on the authority figure, and making it psychologically difficult to withdraw or disobey, even when faced with morally questionable actions. 4. **What is attribution theory?** Theory that [supposes](https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=34e05643fe6f2863&rlz=1C1GCEA_enUS1110US1110&q=supposes&si=ACC90nx67Z8g0WkBmnrPB4IqtqGvMLGZzNfVWGC8xjsobBfjRCcdtWfHSuQmE5Jz-z4UK4JMu54UmR8Uk2ibANZ8oNpdz7l69A8-LUU7mrXO7kI5rgLGOhM%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih1qrXt5GKAxXPITQIHbGrGUkQyecJegQIJxAP) that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by [attributing](https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=34e05643fe6f2863&rlz=1C1GCEA_enUS1110US1110&q=attributing&si=ACC90nwZrNcJVJVL0KSmGGq5Ka2YF5qHzr8RWbGkm60ApLMbIo1l539tCXpW96x7TH0cJ-Jo1lUWSZHhOHqErSzXo3Ms6IAABvCxNostKRMw7b5sv0W5KQw%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih1qrXt5GKAxXPITQIHbGrGUkQyecJegQIJxAQ) feelings, beliefs, and [intentions](https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=34e05643fe6f2863&rlz=1C1GCEA_enUS1110US1110&q=intentions&si=ACC90nz-2feRzoY4yuySkO-aQE81weUValSV3hqGZWbiULUP80nZjfxOnlPKiDHcPs9ff-oBGPWtYLjm25ghrP2y18NdDAIwvK3wnzCribdlYSiXFHaTcwg%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwih1qrXt5GKAxXPITQIHbGrGUkQyecJegQIJxAR) to them. 5. **What is the validity effect? How does it contribute to the spread of disinformation?** - The psychological phenomenon where repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood of it being perceived as true, regardless of its actual veracity. This occurs because familiarity can enhance cognitive fluency (the ease with which information is processed), leading people to mistake ease of understanding or recognition for truth. - Over time, individuals may forget where they heard the information but retain the familiarity of the statement, making them less likely to critically evaluate its source or accuracy. 6. **What is the purpose of initiation rituals?** - According to psychology, the purpose of initiation rituals is to facilitate a sense of belonging within a group by marking a transition into a new social role or status - By undergoing a shared experience, often with elements of discomfort or challenge, individuals develop a stronger sense of connection and trust with other group members. 7. **How are cult members and suicide bombers recruited (slide 15)?** - Presented as a "Subcultural Problem Solver" - Identifying strained populations/individuals - Frustrated/Isolated - Blocked opportunities - Resolution of cognitive dissonance - **FROM REJECTED TO SUPERIOR** 8. **What are the characteristics of cults that we covered in class (slides 16 and 17)?** - Rigid belief system - Characteristic of the leader - Isolation - High-demand schedule - Deceptive recruitment tactics - Extreme emotional manipulation of members - Privileges granted to the leader - Members often relinquish all financial assets - Denied to members - Members often relinquish all financial assets 9. **What are the motivators for staying in cults (slides 18-19)?** - Ineffectiveness of logical arguments - The role of control and isolation - Shapes reality - Prevents criticism - Increased reliance - Members are typically made to feel in control - Comfort in the face of anxiety, fear, and uncertainty - Cult promotes a binary view of the world - Drive to attain purity/redemption - Confession - Emphasizes sin/impurity before joining - Role of the leadership in absolving - Blackmail 10. **What are the four characteristics of stereotypes covered in class?** Stereotypes are often overgeneralized, inaccurate(Simplistic/Inflexible), and resistant to new information. A stereotype does not necessarily need to be a negative assumption. They may be positive, neutral, or negative. 11. **What are the psychological, social, economic, cultural, and natural origins of prejudice?** 1. **Know the difference between stimulus-based and response-based models of stress** 2. **Know the difference between primary and secondary appraisal of stressors** 3. **Be able to compare and contrast distress and eustress (a recap of the ideas covered at the end of Chapter 10).** 4. **Know the components of the fight or flight model (there are four "f" terms in total). What role do the sympathetic and endocrine systems play?** - **Fight: An active response where an individual confronts the threat directly, often involving physical aggression. ** - **Flight: A response where an individual flees from a perceived threat. ** - **Freeze: A state of paralysis or inaction in the face of a threat, where the body essentially \"shut down\". ** - **Fawn: A more recent addition, describing a response where an individual attempts to appease the threat by being overly accommodating or submissive. ** **Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System:** - **When a perceived threat arises, the sympathetic nervous system is activated, causing immediate physiological changes like increased heart rate, dilated pupils, rapid breathing, and muscle tension, preparing the body to either fight or flee. ** - **This system releases neurotransmitters like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which trigger these bodily responses. ** **Role of the Endocrine System:** - **Once the initial \"fight or flight\" response is triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, the endocrine system kicks in, primarily by releasing cortisol from the adrenal glands. ** - **Cortisol helps mobilize energy reserves, suppress immune function, and maintain the body\'s heightened state for a longer duration, allowing for sustained coping with stress. ** a. **Which glands/hormones does the sympathetic nervous system activate (this is expanded upon on slide 10).** **The sympathetic nervous system primarily activates the adrenal glands, causing them to release the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which are crucial for the \"fight or flight\" response in the body.** b. **What is the HPA axis? Which hormones does it involve?** is a major component of the endocrine system that regulates the body's stress response, as well as other processes like mood, energy, immune function, and metabolism. It is a complex network of interactions among three key glands: 1. **Hypothalamus** (in the brain) 2. **Pituitary gland** (located at the base of the brain) 3. **Adrenal glands** (situated on top of the kidneys) 5. **Know the stages of general adaptation syndrome. What order do they unfold in and what takes place during each phase?** 6. **Be able to compare and contrast problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies.** 7. **Be able to compare and contrast external and internal loci of control.** 8. **What are the three components that make up the happiness model we covered in class?** 9. **Be familiar with the ego integrity vs. despair stage. What occurs during this stage?** 10. **What is generativity? How does it relate to the concept of a "life well-lived"?** **the propensity and willingness to engage in acts that promote the wellbeing of younger generations as a way of ensuring the long-term survival of the species.** 1. **Know the components of mental disorders that were covered on the opening slide of the lecture.** 2. **Be familiar with the vulnerability-stress model of psychological disorders.** 3. **Know the symptoms and characteristics of each of the following disorders:** a. **Generalized anxiety disorder** b. **Panic disorder** c. **Phobias** d. **PTSD** e. **Obsessive-compulsive disorder** f. **Major depression** g. **Bipolar disorder** h. **Borderline personality disorder** i. **Psychopathy** j. **Antisocial personality disorder** k. **Dissociative identity disorder** l. **Schizophrenia** 4. **What role does gender play in the diagnosis of major depression?** 5. **What are the four factors (covered in class) that contribute to major depression?** 6. **What are some of the potential causes of schizophrenia that were covered in class?**