Midterm #2 for 2nd Period PDF

Midterm #2 for 2nd period ~Overview of the exam → Assuming that there is 62 multiple choice questions like before~ **Study Guide: Family Relationships and Adolescent Development** **Chapter 4 Overview** ★ Changes in Family Relationships at Adolescence: ○ Conflicts between a...

Midterm #2 for 2nd period ~Overview of the exam → Assuming that there is 62 multiple choice questions like before~ **Study Guide: Family Relationships and Adolescent Development** **Chapter 4 Overview** ★ Changes in Family Relationships at Adolescence: ○ Conflicts between adolescents and parents often revolve around mundane issues like curfews and leisure activities. Adolescents rarely rebel against their parents for the sake of rebelling Clincts increase during early adolescence ○ Adolescents typically fight over authority and autonomy, with peak conflict occurring around ages 13-14 for boys and 11-12 for girls. ○ *Family systems theory: Relationships in families chang emost dramatically when individual members or family circumstances are changing ○ *Midlife crisis: A psychological crisis over identity believed to occur between the ages of 35 and 45 ○ Familism: An orientation toward life in which the needs of the family take precedence over the needs of the individual ○ Generational dissonance: Divergence of views between adolescents and parents that is common in families of immigrant parents and American-born adolescents. ○ Sex differences in family relationships: Teens are usually closer to mothers Fight more, and see mothers as controlling Fathers are usually viewed as relatively distant authority figures ★ Family Relationships and Adolescent Development: ○ Parenting styles significantly influence adolescent development, including relationships with siblings and genetic factors. ○ Socialization is a two-way street: just as parents affect their adolescents’ behaviour, teens also affect how their parents behave ○ Diania Baumring suggests 2 critical aspects of parenting Parental responsiveness: Degree to which the parent responds to the child’s needs in an accepting, supportive manner. Parental demandingness: Degree to which parent expects and insists on mature, and responsible behaviour from the child. ★ The Adolescent's Family in a Changing Society: ○ The impact of divorce, marital conflict, and economic stress on family dynamics and adolescent well-being is crucial. ○ Special family forms, such as single-parent families and remarriage, affect adolescents differently. ★ Key Concepts: ○ *Parenting Styles: Authoritative: Warm, accepting, encouraging, firm control, promotes self-direction. The kids become more psychologically mature, responsible, creative, socially skilled & academically successful. Balance between restrictiveness and autonomy; promotes self-control Authoritarian: Punitive, forceful discipline, emphasizes obedience. The kids are more dependent, more passive, less socially adept, less self-assured, and less curious. Indulgent: Responsive but low demands, focuses on happiness. The kids are less mature, less responsible, and more conforming to their peers. Indifferent: Low responsiveness and demands, detached - responsiveness and demandingness. The kids are more impulsive, more likely to be indivolved in delinquent behaviour, and in precocious experinemntation with sec, drugs, and alchol. ○ Effects of Parenting Styles: Authoritative parenting leads to better psychological maturity and social skills in adolescents. Authoritarian and indifferent styles correlate with dependency and behavioral issues. ★ Adolescent Relationships: ○ Sibling Dynamics: Sibling relationships become more equal and less emotionally intense during adolescence. The quality of sibling relationships is influenced by parent-child dynamics. Siblings may have very different family experiences Treated differently by parents Percieve similar expereinces in different ways  Grew up in the same household at different times in family’s life ★ Genetic Influences: ○ Behavioral genetics: The scientific study of generic influences on behaviour ○ Molecular genetics: The scientific study of the structure and function of genes ○ Alleles: Different versions of the same gene ○ shared environmental influences: Nongenetic influences that make individuals living in the same family similar to each other ○ Nonshared environmental unfluences: Nongenetic unfluences in individual’s lives that make them different from people they live with. Both genewtic and nonshared environmental influences are very strong during adolescence; shared envinronmental influences are less so. ○ Diathesis-stress model: Perspective on psychological disorders that posits that problems are the result of an interaction between a preexisting condition (the diathesis) exposure to stress in the environment. ○ Differential susceptibility theory: The idea that the same genetic tendencies that make an individual especially susceptible to develop problems when exposed to adverse environmental influences also make them especially likely to thrive when exposed to positive envinronemntal influence. ★ Impact of Divorce and Family Changes: ○ High rates of divorce, cohabitation, and childbearing outside of marriage, and a changing international have altered the world children grow up in. ○ Adolescents often face challenges adjusting to new family structures, especially with new authority figures. ○ Approx. ⅓ of individual who married in 2000’s will be divorce within 20 years. ○ Adolescents are less likely than children to experience their parents divorce. ○ While most children live with 2 parents – only 42% of black children live with 2 parents ○ Approx. 20% of all adolescents grow up in poverty – additional 20% in low-income fam. – Usually nonwhite ○ Hostile marital conflict (divorce for example) → Adolescent emotional insecuirty → Adolescent behaviour problems ○ Sleeper effects: The behaviours demonstrating adjustment difficulties; drug use for example. ○ Financial support from fathers is associated with less problem behaviour and higher academic achievement. ○ Short-term effects of remarriage: girls have more diffulty than boys, and older children have more difficulty than younger children  ★ Economic Stress and Its Effects: ○ Financial Strain: Economic stress can lead to increased emotional distress and behavioral problems in adolescents. Chronic poverty undermines parental effectiveness and increases adolescent anxiety and conduct issues. Parents belong to “sandwich generation” 1.3 millions adolescents living on the streets any given night; mostly female 12-17 with as much as 40% LGBTQ teens. Conseeuences include illness, poor nutrition, “survival sex,” etc. ★ Special Family Forms: ○ Foster care: Placement in a temporary living arrangement when a child’s parents are not able to provide care, nurturance, or safety. Nearly ⅓ of adolescents who spend time in fonster care due to parental maltreatment or delinquency. ○ Adoption and Foster Care: Adopted adolescents may experience unique psychological challenges, but outcomes vary widely. Adolescents in foster care are at higher risk for emotional and behavioral issues due to past trauma. ★ Peer groups: Groups of individuals of appro. The same ○ Why are they needed: expected adult behaviours depends on a family so peer groups would help those who don’t know about something. Socialization is also important. ★ Age grading: The process of grouping individuals within social institutions on the last basis of age. ★ Baby boom: The period following World War II, during which the numbers of infants born was extremely large ★ Margaret Mead: ○ The best way to socialize adolescents for adulthood depends on the speed of societies changes ○ Postfigurative cultures: Cultures in which the socialization odf young people is done primarily by adults. But societies have shifted away from postifgurative cultures ○ Configurative cultures: Cultures in which young people are socialized by both adults and by each other. ○ Prefigurative cultures: Cultures in which society is changing so quickly that adults are frequently socialized by young people, rather than reverse. ★ Cliques: Small, tightly knit groups of between 2 and 12 friends, generally of the same sex, age, and race/ethnicity.  ○ Provides the main soxial context in which adolescents interact with one another. ★ Crowds: “Reputation-based clusters of youths, whose function in party is to help solidify young people’s social and personal identity.” ○ Includes, “Jocks,” “brains,” “nerds,” “populars,” and “druggies.” Labels vary. ★ The waxing, and waning of Crowds ○ By 9 grade there is a sort of crowd structure made. Declines between 9-12. ★ Reference groups: A groupd against which an individual compares themself. ○ Crowds act as reference groups and provide their members with an identity in the eye of others. ○ Crowd membership is often the basis for an adolescent’s own identity. Often they imitate the crowd leader’s behaviour Strive to follow the crowd’s established social norms Recieve reinforcement for following norms. ○ Self-esteem is higher among students who are identified with peer groups that have relatively more status in their school. ★ Age segregation - Make its more unlikely that an individual will have friends who are a lot older or younger. ★ Ethnic segregation - Individuals are more likely to have friends of the same ethnicity from a different social class than friends from the same social class but different ethnic group. ★ 3 factors for determining clique memberships ○ Orientation toward school ○ Orientation toward the teen culture ○ Involvement in antisocial activity ★ Gangs: Organized peer groups of antisocial individuals ○ At a greater risk for many types of problems; antisocial behaviour, psychological distress ★ Iatrogenic effects: Unintended adverse consequences of a treatment or intervention. ★ Adolescents characteristics influence their choice of friends → Adolescents friends influence each other’s characteristics (it’s a cycle that goes around and around) ★ 2 forms of popularity: ○ Sociometric popularity: How well-liked an individual is ○ Perceived popularity: How much status or prestige an individual has. ★ Types of agressions: ○ Proactive aggression: Aggressive behaviour that is deliberate and planned. ○ Reactive aggression: Aggressive behavior that is unplanned and impulsive. ★ The “too popular” face the possibility of being th eobject of other classmate’s meanness. ★ Rejected adolescents: The 3 types: ○ Those who have problems controelling aggression ○ Withdrawn adolescents who are shy, anxious, and inhibited.  ○ Those who are both aggressive and withdrawn. ★ Relational aggression: Acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of relationships with others (malicious gossip). ○ “Mean girls” ; the idea of relational aggression was first found in girls, but boys also use it. ○ Those who use this are usually more popular. ★ Hostile attribution bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile. ★ Peer victimization → Emotional Problems (its a never-ending cycle). ★ Victimization = ○ Low self-esteem, depression, suicide, sleep difficulties, academic difficulties, loneliness, problems with social skills, and diffcultues in controlling negative emotions. ○ 4 categories of victims = Mainly passive e.g., ignoring the bully or walking away Mainly aggresive e.g., fighting back, either physically or verbally Support seeking e.g., telling a parent Those who do a little of everything ★ Cyberbullying = Bullying that occurs over the internet or via cell phones ○ Less common than in-person harassment ○ Affects victims in ways that are similar to physical bullying ○ Becomes more common during adolescence ○ Associated with both emotional and behavioral problems ★ Classroom climate refers to the intellectual and social environment of the classroom, including how teachers and students interact, how time is used, and teachers' standards and expectations for students. ○ How teachers interact with students ○ How class time is used ○ The standards and expectations teachers hold for students ★ Student engagement: The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning and mastering the material rather than simply completing the assigned work. ○ Disengagement comes in diff. Forms: Behaviourally, emotionally, and cognitively. ★ Students frequently say that they are bored while in school — especially among high school students. WHY?? ○ The make-work, routinized, rigid structure of most classrooms, with teach lecture rather than student discussion, alienate many adolescents from school and undermines their desire to achieve. ○ Out-of-school influence on student engagement: Peer groups support, values, and norms also exert an important influence.  Students whose parents are involved in school activities , who encourage and emphasize, academic success, and who use aturhotitative parenting practices do better in secondary school than their peers. ○ Instead, schools should… Emphasize intellectual activities, employ teachers who are strongly committed to students and have enough freedom to teach effectively Well-integrated into the communities they serve. Composed of classrooms, where students are active participants Staffed by teachers hwo are well-qualified and who have received specific training in teaching adolescents. ★ Reachers who have addressed 3 broad questions ○ Whether working helps adolescents develop a sense of responsibility Little research supports the popular view that holding a job makes adolescents mor responsible Some data indicates high rates of misconduct on the job Money management is one positive effect Psychological development impact depends on the job ○ Whether working interferes with other activities such as school The issue is how many hours an adolescent works, not whether an adolescent has a job Working fewer than 20 hr per week, seems to not have anegative effect ○ Whether working promotes the development of undesirable behaviours such as drug and alchol use. Working does not deter teens from delinquent activity by keeping them out trouble, contrary to popular belief. Working long hours may actually be associated wirth increases in aggression, school misconduct, precocious secual activity, and minor delinquency. *It’s difficult to study adolescent’s moods as emotions change through the day. ★ The experience Sampling Method (ESM) ○ ESM: A method of collecting data about adolescents emotional states, in which individuals are sifgnaled and asked to report on their mood and activity. ○ Adolescent moods are most positive when with friends, least positive when alone. ○ They repot moderate levels of concentration in school, very low levels of motivation or interest. ○ Positive combinations of high motivation, concentration, and engagement are mos tcommon when involved in sports or some arts. ★ The impact of extracurricular participation on development ○ Improves student’s performance in school, increases the odds of college enrollment, and reudcdes the likelihood of dropping out.  ○ It deters delinquency, drug use, and other types of risk-taking. ○ It enhances the student’s psychological wellbeing and social status. ★ Reasons for the positive impact of extracurricular participation ○ Increases contact with teachers and othe rschool personnel who may reinforce the value of school ○ Indreases contact with peers who influence them in beneficial ways ○ Increased bonding between students and school ★ Negative outcomes from certain sports: ○ Involvement in problem behaviour, fighting, delinquency. ○ More antisocial behaviour ○ Injuries ○ Increased anxiety and tension due to highly competitive atmosphere. ★ Unstructured leisure time ○ Routine activity theory A perspective on adolescnen that views unstructured, unsupervised time with peers as a main cause of misbehaviour. Unstructured, unsupervised time with peers leads to depression, sdelinquency, drug and alchol use, violence, and precocious sexual activity. ○ Time after school: Psychologists differ on whether unsperivised children benefit from being on their own Studies have found that self-care children and their peers do not differ in psychological development, school achievement, or self-conceptions Self-care children my be mor esociall isolated, more depressed, more likely to have problems at shcool, be sexually active at younger ages, engage in other problem behaviour, and use more drugs and alcohol. ★ Positive youth development: The goal of programs designed to facilitate health psychosocial development and not simply to deter problematic development. ○ One model emphasized 5 Cs of positive youth development: *Competence: A positive view of one’s actions in domain-specific areas, including social, academic, cognitive, and vocational. Social competence pertains to interpersonal skills e.g, conflict resolution. School grades, attendance, and test scores are part of academic competence. Vocational competence involves work habits and career choice explorations. Cognitive competence pertains to cognitive abilities e.g., decision making  Confidence: An internal sense of overall positive self-worth, and self-efficacy Connection: Positive bonds with people and institutions that are reflected in bidirectional exchanges betw. The individual and peers, family, school, and community. Character: espect for societal and cultural rules, and possession of standards for correct behaviours, a sense of right and wrong (morality), and integrity. Caring/compassion: A sense of sympathy and empathy for others. ★ The EPOCH model stresses Engagement, Perseverance, optimism, connectedness, and happiness. ★ Cultivation theory: A perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed. ★ Uses and gratifications approach: A perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed. ★ Media practice model: A perspective on media use that emphasizes the fact that adolescents not only choose what media they are exposed to but also interpret the media in ways that shape their impact. Theories of medial influence and use: ★ Correlation: The extend to which 2 things vary systematically with each other. ★ Causation: The correlation betw. 2 things attributable to the effect one thing has on the other. ★ Reverse causation: Relationship in which the correlation between 2 things is due not to the first thing causing thre second, but to the seconds causing the first. ★ Spurious causation: Realtionshp in which the corelation between 2 things is due to the fact that each of them is correlated with some third factor. ★ The only sure way to demonstrate cause and effect of media influence is to conduct an experiment in which people are randomly assigned ot be (or not be) exposed to the medium to see how it affects them. ★ Fear of missing out (FOMO): Excessive worry that others are having ewarding experiences that don’t include you. ★ Internet addiction: A disorder in which an indiviudal’s use of the internet is pathological, defined by 6 symptoms ○ Salience: Being online is the most important thing in life ○ Mood change: One’s mood fluctuates as a function of internet experiences ○ Tolerance: Needing more and more internet time to feel satisitifed ○ Withdrawal: Experience negative feelings when prevented from being online ○ Conflict: The internet has caused problems in one’s relationships or some other aspect of life  ○ Relapse and reinstatement: Returning to addictive internet behaviour after getting it under control *Compulsive internet use CIU: Internet addicition ★ Sexting: Sending sexually explicity content, usually pictures, over the internet