Middle Ages Notes PDF

Middle Ages Key topics: State-building and diplomacy Christianity and Islam Migrations and invasions Church and state relations Cultural revivals The Crusades and Reconquis...

Middle Ages Key topics: State-building and diplomacy Christianity and Islam Migrations and invasions Church and state relations Cultural revivals The Crusades and Reconquista Empire collapses 3 REGIONS 3 TIME PERIODS -Continental/Western/Latin Europe -Early Middle Ages (Present-day Italy, France, Germany, (+/- 500 – 1000) England, the Netherlands, etc.) -High Middle Ages -Al-Andalus (+/- 1000 – 1315) (Present-day Spain & Portugal) -Late Middle Ages -The Byzantine Empire (+/- 1315 – 1453) (Present-day Greece, Turkey, and in the early Extended to 1492 – End of days, Palestine, Egypt, etc.) Reconquista LECTURE 1 Intro + Early ME (1st half) Fall of the WRE Rise of Frankish kingdoms Middle Ages 1  Early ERE developments Early Christianity Rise of Islam The conquest of Spain King Charlemagne 0 – 800 AD The rise of christianity Created in the 1st Century A.D. Christian ideals attracted especially the middle class and the provincials – those outside the Roman elite Edict of Milan (313): Official recognition of Christianity Driving force: Emperor Constantine The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312) Official ‘state religion’ under Theodosius I (r. 379-395) Important work: Augustine’s City of God -> Seminar I The fall of the western roman empire The disintegration of the Western Roman Empire is symbolically marked by the year 476. The events leading to disintegration offer critical insights into migration patterns, religious changes, and political shifts. Why did the WRE collapse? Crisis of the 3rd Century (20+ emperors in 50 years!) caused the dismantling of the Roman elite Room for the provincials! -> Less focus on Rome More powerful and organized ‘barbarian’ forces Influenced by the Romans Middle Ages 2  The Huns caused migration waves. (376) Displaced barbarians demanded entry into the Empire Rebellion of Visigoths, death of Emperor Valens (378) Can we come to an agreement? No, we can’t —> Sack of Rome under Alaric (410) Why did the WRE collapse? The Vandals captured Carthage (439) No more food and tax from this wealthy province... The Huns, now under Attila, attacked Rome (440453) Recapture of Carthage made impossible! The death of Attila (453) —> Huns left Europe ‘Do we still need the Romans?’ Odovacar deposed Romulus Augustulus (476) The West: Migrations The Roman Empire implemented immigration policies that played a significant role in shaping its demographics and societal structures. A notable event was in 378, which marked the first signs of overwhelming waves of immigration into Roman territories. Throughout the fifth century, large-scale changes occurred, primarily driven by various tribes. Key migratory groups included the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Anglo-Saxons, and Burgundians, each having a profound impact on the Empire and its eventual decline. The South: Islam The rise of Islam began with the prophet Mohammed, whose teachings led to rapid territorial expansion. Middle Ages 3  Following Mohammed's death, his succession resulted in the establishment of influential dynasties, particularly the Umayyads and the Abbasids. The Abbasid dynasty is especially noted for the establishment of the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad in 830, which became a prominent center for knowledge, culture, and science. The East In contrast to the western territories, the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire continued to thrive even after the west's decline. However, the East was not without its challenges, including significant religious dissent characterized by movements such as Nestorianism and Monophysitism. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 was a pivotal event aimed at addressing these religious divisions. A notable figure in this era was Emperor Justinian I, who played a central role in maintaining the Empire's structure and influence amidst ongoing religious strife. The legacy of the western roman empire Lesaffer, 2009, p. 62: “Although the WRE no longer existed, it lived on in people’s minds. The Latin, western part of Europe continued to consider itself as part of the empire. The fact that there was no longer an emperor or any effective imperial authority did not destroy the notion of empire.” Germanic kings as leaders of peoples, not land. ERE persisted! Considered widely to be ‘the Roman Empire’ Why do you think the Eastern Roman Empire did not take great efforts to prevent the fall of the Western Roman Empire? The Rise of frankish kingdoms Middle Ages 4  The new kingdoms were organized The new kingdoms were Roman-influenced The new kingdoms were Christian Clovis I (482-511), first of the Merovingians Subjugated the Frankish rulers and tribes Allied with the Church, baptised as Christian in 496 (seminars)...Followed by about 200 years of domestic disputes and power struggles. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE E. ROMAN EMPIRE Reign of Justinian I (r. 527-565) Wars with the Persian Empire in the east Wars to recapture Roman provinces in the west To recapture the glory of the old Roman empire Middle Ages 5  Success! Areas in Italy became Byzantine ‘provinces’ Conquered & re-conquered until +/- 8th Century Codex Justinianus (529) & Digest (533) The Plague of Justinian (541-590) Estimated death toll: 25-100 million (1/3rd of Europe!) The two swords doctrine Lesaffer, 2009, p. 141-142: “The collapse of imperial authority in the West and the conquest by the non-Christian Germanic tribes freed the Western Church from secular control [...] Gradually, the Eastern and Western churches drifted apart.” Lesaffer, 2009, p. 143: “The alliance between the Frankish kings and the pope rested on a precarious balance of power. Both had an interest in empowering the other but felt threatened [by the other] at the same time.” The Two Swords Doctrine The theory of two separate but co-equal powers, in balance & conflict Doctrine only arose ‘officially’ in the Investure Controversy Pope Gregory I THE GREAT c&B Tipping the Scales: Pope Gregory I the Great (540-604) ‘Founder’ of medieval papacy Great reforms in canon law and hierarchy in the Church Focus on establishing the supremacy of the pope Centralization of the Pope’s secular powers The (Medieval) Pope was a ‘king’ in many ways! Middle Ages 6  Personally held lands, heard cases, paid for armies Secular powers only really lost in the 15th Century Great Western Schism —> Lecture 4 SIGNS OF A SCHISM c&B Note: Gregory I the Great was a Byzantine! Rome temporarily reconquered by Justinian I in 540 In practice, Byzantine influence was always a little low… Pope held great local power 7th Century: Slow move towards autonomy 691/692: Conflict between Pope & Byzantine Emperor Cause: Justinian II’s call for religious reforms Pope Sergius I refused; Justinian II tried to arrest him Failure: The Italian army chose the Pope’s side! Henceforth, effective Papal autonomous rule in Italy 8th Century: Pope turns to the Franks instead… Slavic invasions (670-700) B Middle Ages 7  The rise of islam a Rosenwein, 2018, p. 56: “Under the leadership of Muhammad (c. 570-632) in Arabia, Islam created a new world power in less than a century.” Muhammad received visions of Allah from 610 onwards, which would later become the Qur’an. Being/Becoming the best community under submission to God Muhammad found his message unwelcome in Mecca. Instead he made the Hijra – the flight from Mecca to Medina – in 622, there becoming both a religious and a secular leader Qur’an (9:73): “Strive, O Prophet, against the unbelievers and the hypocrites, and deal with them firmly.” After Muhammad’s death, Islamic armies conquered great cities like Damascus (635), Alexandria (642), Persepolis (648) & Carthage (697). Well-organized, powerful armies [VS] weakened empires Middle Ages 8  Establishment of Ummayyad dynasty (661), capital Damascus The Sunni and the Shi’ah Shi’ah: Followers of Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law Sunni: Followers of the established Muslim order The conquest of spain a Muslim armies swept across the coast of North Africa and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 711, invading Spain and defeating its Visigoth king, Rodrigo, at the Battle of Guadalete. Jihad(?) In less than 10 years Spain was under Islamic rule. The natives either became dhimmis, converted, or fled. Muslim forces attempted to invade southern France but were stopped by Charles Martel, leader of the Franks and first of the Carolingians, in 754 Fernández-Morera: “After this defeat at the hand of Europeans [...] Islamic armies from Spain never again seriously threatened Europe.” Discontent with the Umayyads: Privileged elite Shi’ah Muslims cast doubt on right to rule Overthrown by the Abbasids (750) Same issues! But wealth skyrocketed. Independent Al-Andalus (756) Abd al-Rahman I of the Umayyads fled to al-Andalus, defeated the provincial governor, and became emir of the Emirate of Cordoba ON HISTORICAL, CRITICAL THINKING Some conflicting accounts… Middle Ages 9  “It was Muslim scholars who preserved Graeco-Roman science and philosophy throughout medieval Europe’s prolonged Dark Ages” (Heck, 2007, p. 29) “Muslim rulers of the past were far more tolerant of people of other faiths than were Christian ones.” (The Economist, 2001) “The most valuable lessons of the Islamic conquests are not about tyranny and intolerance but how Islam can effectively navigate a pluralistic world.” (Sahner, 2008, p. 55) “The great writings of the classical era [...] were always available to the Byzantines [...] of the Greek classics known today, at least 75% are known through Byzantine copies.” (Fernández-Morera, 2016) “The infidel had practically no right in this struggle that took place in infidel lands; the Muslim had every right.” (Fernández-Morera, 2016) “In short, Islamic spain enjoyed no harmonious convivencia; rather, Muslims, Christians and Jews had a precarious coexistence.” (Fernández- Morera, 2016) Of course, Fernández-Morera has also been heavily criticized... Stay both open-minded and critical, whilst keeping in mind historical nuances! “Historians have traditionally spoken of the relatively peaceful co-existence (convivencia) of Christians, Muslims and Jews in the Iberian Peninsula from the time of the Muslim invasion (711) until the 14th century. Others, however – Dario Fernandez-Morera is a good example – have argued that both Jews and Christians were persecuted or at least suffered discrimination under Islamic rule. More recent studies […] suggest that grand generalizations must give way to particular cases.” (Rosenwein, 2018, p. 295) Middle Ages 10  Even history can ‘change’ – or at least our understanding of it! Iconoclasm b A series of natural disasters hit the Byzantine empire in the 7th Century. God must be angry at our cult of holy images! Rosenwein, 2018, p. 71: “No representation of Christ, the iconoclastic bishops argued, could accurately portray the correct union of His two natures, man and God” Destruction of idols, official ban in 754 Rosenwein, 2018, p. 85: “In 750 Byzantium was a state with its back to the world: its iconoclasm isolated it from other Christians. Its strategiai focused its military operations on internal defense, and its abandonment of classical learning set it apart from its past. Ended with the ascenscion of Empress Irene (780) King charlemagne c Grandson of Charles Martel (688-741), son of Pippin the Short (714-768) Lesaffer, 2009, p. 132: “The most important expansion of the kingdom [of the Franks] took place under Charlemagne. [...] With the exception of Britain and southern Italy, he governed all the territories that had once formed part of the Western Roman Empire and were still Christian.” ‘Protector of Rome’ —> Defeated the Lombards on behalf of the Pope (774) Fun fact: Almost married the Byzantine empress! The Carolingian Renaissance Political purpose! Promoting political, legal, religious, cultural and intellectual unification across the realm. Lesaffer, 2009, p. 179: Middle Ages 11  “Charlemagne took a great interest in education. [...] Charlemagne ordered that each bishop should set up a school. All through the empire, the same curriculum would be taught.” Developments in art, architecture, etc. Aachen palace Feudalism discussed next lecture... On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor. Lesaffer, 2009, p. 146: “Charlemagne later revealed that if he had foreknown [that the emperor would crown him emperor], he would not have entered Saint Peter’s that night” -Why do you think Charlemagne may not have desired to be crowned emperor? -Why do you think the Pope desired to crown Charlemagne as emperor? Pope: Renovatio Imperii ‘Restoration of the Roman Empire’ Establishing a rival power [vs] the emperor in Constantinople Establishing a protective force standing behind the Pope But not an effort to establish power over the Emperor! Two Swords doctrine? Charlemagne: Translatio imperii Confirmation that the Franks were a ‘chosen people’; the chosen ‘fifth kingdom’ on earth. Lesaffer, 2009, p. 148: “The Franks laid claim to being the fifth kingdom, which would endure until the end of times. In the process, the universal claims of the Romans were transferred to Middle Ages 12  the Franks.” Timeline, geographically The Merovingian Dynasty The Merovingian Dynasty is characterized by an aristocratic social structure. Economically, the society was predominantly agrarian, relying on agriculture for sustenance and trade. There was a notable struggle between continuity and discontinuity in the Christian faith during this period, impacting societal norms and practices. The Church played a significant role, influencing both the spiritual and social dynamics of the time. The process of Christianization was gradual, marked by the use of sermons, the sacrament of confession, and the establishment of monasteries. Key philosophical influences included the interiorization of thoughts from early Church Fathers. An example of textual relevance from this era is the Abbey of Jumièges, showcasing the intertwining of culture and faith. The transliteration of a related text reflects on the interaction between nature, health, and divine grace, emphasizing the belief that both plants and animals contribute to human well- being. Middle Ages 13  The Carolingian Dynasty The transition to the Carolingian Dynasty followed the death of King Dagobert and marked significant political changes. A new external policy was implemented, along with a relocation of the capital, reshaping the governance of the realm. Charlemagne's crowning as Emperor in Rome on Christmas Day in 800 A.D. symbolized a pivotal moment in establishing the Carolingian Empire. The Carolingian vision for the Empire emphasized a blend of political authority and religious legitimacy, integrating church structures into governance. Alcuin of York was a notable scholar during this period, contributing to education and culture, which facilitated the Carolingian Renaissance. The transliteration of a prayer or liturgical text illustrates the integration of piety and governance, reflecting the values upheld by the Carolingian rulers. LECTURE 2 Early Middle Ages Part 2 Emperor Charlemagne Charlemagne ruled a multi-ethnic empire and established imperial authority as a means to enhance his governance. Key contributions included the Carolingian Renaissance, which aimed to unite the political, legal, religious, and cultural landscapes of his realm. His governance model combined the traditional Germanic ideas of kingship with the feudal system, focusing on mutual obligations between the lord and vassals. After Charlemagne's death in 814, his empire faced fragmentation due to succession wars among his grandsons. The Treaty of Verdun (843) divided the empire among the three grandsons: Charles the Bald, Lothar I, and Louis the German. Middle Ages 14  The Feudal System The feudal system emerged from traditional Germanic kingship, defined by personal relationships and mutual obligations between rulers and their followers. Key concepts included mundium (protection responsibilities) and bannum (command authority), highlighting the king's role as a protector and ruler of people. Mundium = The authority and responsibility to protect one’s people and be a just ruler Bannum = The power/right to command, punish, imprison, enforce law, etc. Vassals received land (fiefs) from lords in exchange for military assistance and counsel, creating a hierarchical system known as sub-vassalization. There is a distinction between feudal (political) and seigniorial (economic) systems, with the former focusing on loyalty contracts and the latter on serfdom. In return, these leading members (vassals) would swear to provide their lord with auxilium et consilium – aid and counsel. ‘Double fealty’ next to their traditional oath Sub-vassalization created a hierarchical system Easier to control! Benefits of feudal system: Administrative, military, and economic The benefits of the feudal system included enhanced administrative efficiency and military organization. The (Germanic) king did not rule alone! Assemblies The personal relation between king and his people: fides The Oath of Fealty Middle Ages 15  Rewarding good service Charlemagne combined the ideas of reward and fealty into a new military, economic and administrative system: the feudal system. Seignioirial = economic system where serfs work the land given to them as fiefs by the lord. Feudal = political/administrative system where freedmen swear loyalty and aid to the lord in return for a fief (often in the form of land) as part of a contractual agreement. EMPEROR CHARLEMAGNE c The death of Charlemagne in 814 Succeeded by Louis II the Pious (r. 814-840) After Louis’ death (840), succession wars between his three sons Treaty of Verdun (843) Charles the Bald, King of West Francia Lothar I, King of the Middle Kingdom Louis the German, King of East Francia Treaty of Meersen (870) Parts of the Middle Kingdom to Charles and Louis. Nothern Italy split up amongst lesser branches. Invasions of the 9th & 10th Centuries The Viking invasions stemmed from political instability and poor harvests, resulting in settlement in places like England and the establishment of Danelaw by the end of the 9th century. Muslim raiders conducted pillaging expeditions along the French and Italian coasts, establishing small settlements like Fraxinetum before being expelled. The Magyars, originally nomadic warriors, transitioned into mercenaries serving for East Francia and Byzantium before establishing the Kingdom of Hungary. Middle Ages 16  These invasions contributed to the political instability of Europe, paving the way for shifts in power dynamics during the medieval period. HIGH MIDDLE AGES The High Middle Ages and Reconfigurations The Ottonian Dynasty saw the emergence of what historians later referred to as the Holy Roman Empire, particularly under Otto I through Henry II. The Byzantine Empire experienced significant conquests under Basil II, maintaining its influence during this time. The Islamic world saw the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate, while Al-Andalus broke into smaller kingdoms known as taifas after a civil war. The Seljuk Turks emerged as a significant force, disrupting traditional Muslim powers and shifting cultural centers into Iran and Turkey. Al-Andalus fragments into taifas after civil war (1009-1031) The SELJUK TURKS A&B Nomadic Sunni warriors from the East Overran present-day Iran, Iraq, and Turkey (1040-1090) Curtained the Shi’ite wave and established Sunni rule Shifted Muslim cultural/political centres to Iran and Turkey The AlMORAVID EMPIRE A Berber, Sunni pastoralists who founded a state for: Religious reasons (free practice of Sunni Islam) Economic reasons (control African salt & gold trade) Initial expansion to the south-west (1050-1090) Founding of Marrakesh (c. 1070) Middle Ages 17  The taifas of Al-Andalus asked for help against the Christian kingdoms (1086) Reconquista —> Next lecture All of non-recaptured Al-Andalus under Almoravid control by c. 1115 The Gregorian Reforms and the Investiture Controversy The Gregorian reforms, initiated by Pope Gregory VII, aimed to reestablish papal authority and address moral decay within the Church, specifically targeting simony and lay investiture. The Investiture Controversy revolved around the control of ecclesiastical appointments. German kings sought to strengthen secular authority through control over bishops. Gregory VII's Dictatus Papae asserted papal supremacy, leading to conflict with German King Henry IV, who ultimately was excommunicated. The Concordat of Worms (1122) established a compromise whereby secular rulers could invest bishops with temporal authority but were barred from spiritual investiture. THE GREGORIAN REFORMS B&c Background: The Two Swords Doctrine (late 5th Century) There are two powers on Earth: the spiritual authority of the Church and the ‘earthly’/secular authority of the State. Background: The Donation of Constantine Claims that Emperor Constantine bestowed territory, spirutual and secular power upon Pope Sylvester I (r. 314-335) and his successors. First cited by a Pope by Leo IX (1049-1054) There’s just one problem... Background: The East-West Schism (1054) Cause: Religious & political conflicts between Eastern & Western Church Mutual excommunication Reforms of Pope Gregory VII (1073-1084) Establish Papal primacy Middle Ages 18  Purge the Church of moral impurities Simony Nicolaism Strengthen the Church in the face of the East-West Schism Purge the Church of lay / imperial control The INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY c What ‘Lay / Imperial Control’? From the 10th Century onwards, German kings had aimed to strengthen their power over the secular nobility by appointing their own (politically aligned) bishops and abbots Investing (vestire = ‘to dress’) the bishop into public office through giving the symbol of the public office (usually a ring) The emperor bestowing spiritual power! These clerics would have both spiritual and secular power You wouldn’t dare go against a priest, would you? Gregory VII: “No more of that!” —> Dictatus Papae (1075) The Papal power is the sole universal power The Pope alone can appoint or depose churchmen “That of the pope alone all princes shall kiss the feet.” Gregory VII [VS] Henry IV, King of Germany Cause: Investiture of the Bishop of Milan. Gregory forbids Henry to invest the bishop with spiritual power. …Henry does so anyways. Gregory excommunicates Henry (1076): Middle Ages 19  “I deprive King Henry, son of the emperor Henry, who has rebelled against the Church with unheard-of audacity, of the government over the whole kingdom of Germany and Italy, and I release all Christian men from the allegiance which they have sworn or may swear to him, and I forbid anyone to serve him as king.” (Emerton (Ed.), 1969, p. 91) Henry begs Gregory for forgiveness at Canossa. Gregory lifts the excommunication (1077) Why was Henry IV’s excommunication such a problem for him, that he felt the need to beg the Pope for forgiveness? But this did not solve the issue... The German princes elected an anti-king (1077-1080) Gregory sides with the anti-king, excommunicates Henry again (1080) Henry appoints his own pope: anti-pope Clement III (1080) Henry invades Rome to depose Gregory and install Clement (1081) Rome surrenders, Gregory goes into exile (1084) Civil war between ‘imperialists’ and ‘Gregorians’ (1084-1106) The Concordat of Worms (1122) Compromise between Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II The king has the right to invest bishops with secular authority (‘by the lance’), but not with sacred authority (‘by ring and staff’) Did either the emperor or the Pope ‘win’? What is the significance of the Concordat of Worms? Early Scholasticism Middle Ages 20  This intellectual movement emerged toward the late 11th century, marking a renewed focus on the synthesis of faith and reason. Figures like Anselm proposed that reason supplements faith, shaping the scholarly inquiry during this period. Scholasticism emphasized the study of classical texts alongside biblical interpretation, using dialectical methods to uncover truth. The analytical approach involved rigorously dissecting and comparing texts to grasp an irrefutable truth, aiding in the revival of classical knowledge. Scholasticists believed that truth, as revealed to man by God, could be found in these ‘core texts.’ = Renewed interest in the Classics But also: A scientific method! Classics polluted by centuries of translation and copying Analyzing texts thoroughly to reach ‘the one irrefutable Truth’ Unshakeable faith: The truth is there, we just have to find it! How to bridge the gap? Logical instruments Distinctio (differentiation) & equiparatio (similarization) Dialectica (discussion through quaestiones and disputationes) Finding evidence! —> The sic et non method LECTURE 3 The high Middle Ages part 2 Renaissance of the Twelfth Century The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, first articulated by Charles Homer Haskins, highlights a revival in various aspects of life in Western Europe between 1070 and 1225. Key indicators included climate change, technological advancements, and increased agricultural productivity leading to food surpluses and population growth. Middle Ages 21  This period also saw a revival of trade, craft industries, urban life, and the rise of the Third Estate, or 'Burghers.' The resurgence of scholarship and education was notable, with rediscoveries of Justinian’s Digest and Aristotelian texts, which influenced legal studies and the development of universities like Bologna and Oxford. The Reconquista (11th Century) Why did the Reconquista gain traction? Military opportunity —> Split into taifas (early 11th C.) Religious changes —> Christian fervor (late 11th C.) Cultural changes —> Against the Arabs The Reconquista became prominent due to military opportunities presented by the fragmentation of Muslim territories into taifas in the early 11th century. Religious fervor among Christians, alongside cultural dynamics, positioned Arab kingdoms as the primary adversaries of Latin Christianity. Significant events included the Siege of Toledo (1085), which underscored Alfonso VI's assertion of leadership in Spain and the call for assistance against the Almoravids following territorial conflicts. key battles such as the Battle of Sagrajas (1086) created a stalemate, establishing baseline territorial divisions that would influence future conflicts. The taifas call for the aid of the Almoravids (1086) Alfonso VI defeated at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086) ‘Stalemate’ & Territory crystallization Some familiar-sounding reasons... Military opportunity —> Revival of Europe Religious changes —> Christian fervor Cultural changes —> Against the Arabs The Council of Piacenza (March 1095) Middle Ages 22  The Byzantine Emperor requests aid [vs] the Seljuk Turks A religious opportunity for the Pope? The Council of Clermont (November 1095) Urban II calls the First Crusade “Wrest that land from the wicked race, and subject it to yourselves.” (Robert the Monk) Why were the Arab kingdoms ‘chosen’ as the enemy of Christianity, and not the Byzantines? The First Crusade (1095-1099) Initiated by the Council of Clermont in November 1095, the First Crusade was characterized by military opportunity, religious zeal, and cultural conflicts with Muslim territories. - Two ‘types’ of crusaders: the leaders of the West and the People’s / Peasants’ Crusade The crusaders aimed to reclaim Jerusalem, leading to various expeditions, including the People's Crusade and the leaders' later campaigns. Middle Ages 23  Noteworthy successes included the capture of Antioch (1098) and Jerusalem (1099). However, the crusade also intensified anti-Semitic sentiments and violence against Jews in Europe. The establishment of Crusader States followed, requiring constant military reinforcement and interaction with the Byzantine Empire. The Crusader States Following the First Crusade, several militaristic territories, known as Crusader States, were established in the Holy Land to maintain control. These states, while feudal in nature, faced perpetual military threats and necessitated ongoing military support from Europe. Many of these territories were often at odds with their Byzantine neighbors, complicating their security and resource needs. The loss of Edessa in 1144 marked a significant shift, leading to the Second Crusade's ill- fated attempts to reclaim the territory. The second crusade (1145-1150) Goals: Restore the kingdom of Edessa, help the Reconquista and fight the pagans in the Balkans No longer supported by the Byzantine Emperor Disease, poor planning, failed siege of Damascus Result: Failure Dejected Christians, encouraged Muslims The Role of Saladin Saladin, the first ruler of the Ayyubid Dynasty established in Egypt, focused on reforming Islam and resisting Crusader forces. Middle Ages 24  His significant triumph in the Battle of Hattin (1187) led to the capture of Jerusalem shortly thereafter, marking a low point for the Crusaders. Saladin’s campaigns against the Crusader States during the late 12th century effectively curtailed Western influence in the region. The third crusade (1189-1192) Goal: Recapture Jerusalem from Saladin Some modest successes before ‘official’ launch: Defense of Tyre (1188) Siege of Acre (1189-1192) Richard the Lion-Heart [vs] Saladin Battle of Arsuf (1191): Victory for Richard Result: Failure in achieving the main objective, but a success in pushing back Saladin Middle Ages 25  The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) Unlike prior crusades, the Fourth Crusade did not achieve its goal of recapturing Jerusalem and instead resulted in the sacking of Constantinople. The intervention was initially requested by Alexius IV to restore him to the Byzantine throne in exchange for military support and promises of financial aid. Following the coup against Alexius IV, the crusaders turned against Constantinople, leading to significant looting and the empire's temporary destruction. This event deepened the rift between Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, marking the Byzantine Empire's decline. Result: Temporary destruction of the Byzantine Empire! Remnants of the Byzantine Empire re-built their forces and retook the city in 1261. Madden, 2022: “The city, however, would never be the same. For the remainder of its Christian history, it would remain poor, dilapidated, and largely abandoned [...] The legacy of the Fourth Crusade was the deep sense of betrayal the Latins had instilled in their Greek coreligionists. With the events of 1204, the schism between the Catholic West and Orthodox East was complete. The Reconquista (12th & 13th Centuries) Middle Ages 26  The Reconquista saw Christian kingdoms, notably Aragon and Castile, besieging Al- Andalus while dealing with the Almohad Empire, which emerged as a dominant force. Al-Andalus besieged from two sides: The Christian Kingdom of Aragon (North) The Almohad Empire (South) Had overthrown Almoravids in 1147 The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) was pivotal, resulting in a significant Christian victory that weakened Almohad control over Spain. The Christian campaigns continued, capturing key cities like Córdoba and Seville, culminating in the fall of Granada in 1492. Why do you think the Emirate of Granada survived for as long as it did? Significance of Magna Carta In England, the Magna Carta was signed in 1215, reflecting a struggle against King John Lackland's rule and oppressive taxation. Covertly taking control of Richard’s lands Aided by the French king Philip II War between the brothers; victory for John (1199) Philip II confiscates John’s French territories (1202-1204). Need for funds; large taxations on the nobility To no avail: Defeat at the Battle of Bouvines (1214) Baron rebellion: John forced to sign Magna Carta (1215) Pope allows John to annul the charter Baron rebellion; death of John Lackland (1216) It underscored the principle that the king is not above the law, establishing rights for free men and setting precedents for later legal documents such as the U.S. Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Middle Ages 27  Key clauses included the mandate for taxation consent and protection against unlawful imprisonment, emphasizing the importance of due process. Of significant influence on: Civil & Common Law Habeas Corpus Act (1679) U.S. Constitution (1789) The Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) U.S. Bill of Rights (1791) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1998) The Human Rights Act (1998) Emergence of New Empires The Mongol Empire emerged in the 13th century, covering vast territories and influencing trade across continents. The Mamluk Sultanate was established in 1291, marking the conclusion of the Crusader States, while the Ottoman Empire was founded in 1299 and would expand significantly until its dissolution in 1922. These empires played critical roles in shaping the geopolitical landscape of the time, impacting the course of history in Europe, Asia, and Africa. LECTURE 4 The Waning of the Middle Ages Francis was born in 1182/3 with the baptismal name Giovanni. His father, a wealthy merchant in Assisi, was away during his birth. From age 14, Francis helped with his father's business, as few people could afford to study without contributing to their family's work. At age 20, he participated in a conflict between Assisi and Perugia, where he was taken prisoner. Later, he joined a larger symbolic conflict between the Pope and Emperor. Middle Ages 28  Francis then began helping at a hospital for lepers, combining social work with religious service. Medieval hospitals were different from modern ones—they served as both medical facilities and lodging for travelers. After hearing a divine voice calling him to restore the church (meant spiritually), Francis began living in harsh conditions at a church. This choice led to a break with his father, as Francis gave away all his possessions to live a humble, simple life. The POVERTY MOVEMENT consisted of people who chose a poor life for religious reasons. Francis traveled extensively throughout Italy and Spain. He even visited the Egyptian Sultan, engaging in a respectful dialogue while attempting to convert him. The Sultan granted permission for Francis and his followers to stay in the Holy Land as custodians. As people began following his example, the Mendicant movement officially began. Francis later developed stigmata. Mendicants were monks who lived in small urban communities rather than abbeys. Unlike traditional monasteries that could own property and accumulate wealth, Mendicant communities owned nothing, embracing complete poverty. The Franciscans and Dominicans became particularly influential in intellectual life. Universities Universities evolved from cathedral and abbey schools, which taught the seven liberal arts and were excellent centers of learning. Universitas magistrorum et scholarium developed in cities alongside cathedrals. These schools formed communities and federations—unions of people with the same profession. By organizing themselves, they gained strength and could maintain quality standards through examinations. These associations were male-only; women attended abbey schools or had private tutors. Model = guild Curriculum Bologna = oldest university in Europe Middle Ages 29  Thomas Aquinas became a professor at the Dominican university, completing the entire curriculum. Bonaventure, a theologian, also completed the full curriculum. A council attempted to reunite the Eastern and Western churches from 1274 to 1281, but they ultimately divided again. Fourth Council of Lateran Different forms of dissent: Cathars (most important movement, interesting way of thinking) Very broad invitation to the council. They believed the Old Testament God was not the real one but human, while the New Testament God was the true spiritual God. Body/material was considered evil (life should be as immaterial as possible) Takes place in Rome Program of spiritual renewal of church Crisis of the Middle Ages Policy of kings to subordinate nobility and clergy Economic stagnation, Black Death (1347-1350) Popes of Avignon, ecclesiastical division of Western Europe Marsilio of Padua: Defensor Pacis Middle Ages 30