Meeting 6 2024 PDF

Meeting 6 chap 14 projective tests chap 15 Interests and attitudes 1 Chp 14 Projective Pers. tests Projective test: ambiguous stimulus, reaction on this stimulus shows needs, feelings, experiences etc Examples: Rorschach test and the Thematic App...

Meeting 6 chap 14 projective tests chap 15 Interests and attitudes 1 Chp 14 Projective Pers. tests Projective test: ambiguous stimulus, reaction on this stimulus shows needs, feelings, experiences etc Examples: Rorschach test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Tests are controversial 2 Rorschach The Rorschach inkblot test 10 cards, 5 black and grey, 2 black, gray and red, and 3 cards with different colours Individual test, where the respondent is asked to interpret an ink blot, psychologist does not give any clues 3 Rorschach 4 Rorschach Two rounds: (1) Free association “Now we’re going to do the inkblot test - perhaps you’ve heard of it?” Hand subject first card and say “What might this be?” (2) “Inquiry” , where answers are being scored. (tip: check in the book what is being asked) 5 Rorschach What is scored? Characteristics like: (1) Location (W-whole; D-detail; Dd-unusual detail) (2) Determinant (What inkblot features helped determine your response and how? F-Form; m- Movement;Color; Shading) (3) Content (Human, Animal, Nature) (4) Popularity (how frequently is the percept seen in normative samples) 6 Exner Collection of a broad normative data base Integrated system of scoring The Rorschach: A comprehensive system 7 Rorschach Problems with the Rorschach: (1) Administration, scoring and interpretation are not standardized (2) Subjective interpretation of results (3) Results are unstable over time (4) Psychometric properties are insufficient However, used in clinical practice, used as a kind of semi- 8 structured interview, how people respond to ambiguous stimuli. TAT Thematic Apperception Test (Murray) 30 cards, “tell me what happens on these cards, what do these people think?” Based on Murray’s theory of needs Registration of reactions and response time scoring themes like: achievement, affiliation, and power 9 http://www.utpsyc.org/TATintro/ TAT Underlying assumptions: the respondent shows his/her conflicts. Problems: not standardized, subjective in the interpretation of the results, unreliable 10 Chapter 15: Interests and Attitudes measures of personality, interests, and attitudes all are used to measure non-cognitive traits But there are some different traditions 11 Measuring Interests Two important distinctions I. Origin of Scales (= underlying principle of construction) A. Criterion-keying B. Broad areas II. Item Format A. Absolute level of interest B. Relative level of interest 12 Measuring Interests I. Origin of the scale One approach uses criterion-keying: which items differentiate between well-defined groups (see also chapter 12!) Groups are vocational groups So which items differentiate between members of different vocational groups ? 13 Measuring interests Other approach focus on broad areas of interest and a high score in a certain area (for example, artistic, persuasive or scientific) may lead to certain occupations 14 Measuring interests II Item format ABSOLUTE LEVEL Rate the extent to which you like each of these activities: Dislike Neutral Like Dissecting frogs O O O Analyzing data O O O Selling magazines O O O RELATIVE LEVEL Among these activities, mark M for the one you like the Most and mark L for the one you like the Least. Make no mark for the other activity. Dissecting frogs [M] [L] 15 Analyzing data [M] [L] Selling magazines [M] [L] Holland Themes and RIASEC Codes START HERE Realistic Investigative Conventional Artistic Enterprising Social 16 R(ealistic)I(nvestigative)A(rtistic)S(ocial)E(nterpri sing)C(onventional) = acronym to report score Holland Features of the hexagon: Hexagon gives an idea about the degree of relationships between themes (= personality types) Vertexes represent themes, adjacent themes are more strongly related, diagonally themes low correlations Themes related to job types 17 See Table 15.3 (next) Holland’s Personality Types with Examples of Related Jobs and Characteristics Type Code Examples of Jobsa A Few Descriptors Realistic R security guard, athletic trainer practical, frank dentist Investigative I steel worker, police detective, critical, curious chemical engineer Artistic A dancer, fashion designer, expressive, idealistic editor Social S child care worker, occupational therapy aide, kind, generous teacher Enterprising E telemarketer, sales, extroverted, optimistic marketing manager Conventional C police dispatcher, dental assistant, orderly, efficient accountant 18 O*NET http://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/bro wse/Interests This site lists many jobs on the basis of RIASEC codes 19 Strong Interest Inventory (SII) A very popular instrument Consists of different scales and scores (see next slide) 20 Strong Interest Inventory 1. General Occupational Themes (GOT) based on Holland’s RIASEC, 6 scores 2. Basic Interest Scales (BIS, Athletics, Science, Military etc, 30 scores, based on factor analysis) 3. Occupational Scales, different occupations (based on criterion keying) 4. Personal Style Scales: work style, learning environment, leadership, team orientation, risk taking 21 5. Administrative Indexes (= validity indexes) Reliability and Validity Strong Inventory Reliability through Cronbach’s alpha and test- retest, in general satisfactory (larger than r =.80) How do you investigate validity? (1) test results differentiate between existing occupational groups in predictable directions (see next slide) (2) scores are predictive of the occupation (thus 22 future behavior) Differentiation on SII Occupational Scales 23 But there are also invalid tests in this area The DISC colour test Very popular questionnaire in human resources management Objective scoring (not projective) But is it a good test? 24 From the manual The DiSC® Model The foundation of DiSC® was first described by William Moulton Marston in his 1928 book, Emotions of Normal People. Marston identified what he called four “primary emotions” and associated behavioral responses, which today we know as Dominance (D), Influence (i), Steadiness (S), and Conscientiousness (C). 25 DISC Colur test Since Marston’s time, many instruments have been developed to measure these attributes. The Everything DiSC® assessment uses the circle, or circumplex, as illustrated below, as an intuitive way to represent this model. Although all points around the circle are equally meaningful and interpretable, the DiSC model discusses four specific reference points. 26 From the manual Dominance: direct, strong-willed, and forceful Influence: sociable, talkative, and lively Steadiness: gentle, accommodating, and soft- hearted Conscientiousness: private, analytical, and logical 27 The Disc colour test 28 Example Questions Dominance scale I am very outspoken with my opinion I am forceful I tend to challenge people I can be blunt I am tough minded 29 Colour test This test is popular in human resources management (HRM) People do the test and they get a colour (1 perhaps 2 colours) Thus people are a ‘type” 30 Colour test In popular management literature they describe how you should deal with “red” people or “yellow” people Or that you need a “red” person or a “yellow” person in the team It is suggested: this is handy for team dynamics (“Not too many reds” etc) 31 In the bookshop … 32 Problems Theoretical background is weak (based on Jungs typology and a work from 1928 by Marston) There are no scientific articles that – independently from commercial interest– show the psychometric quality of this test There is a –commercial- test manual with some psychometric information, but difficult to judge whether analyses make sense 33 But HRM people love it … Why are these tests so popular? Again: like for the MBTI (see lecture 5) People can make a nice story around this test Face validity is high “If people can construct a simple and coherent story, they will feel confident regardless of how well grounded it is in reality” (Kahneman & Klein, 2010) 34 Generalizations about Career Interest Measures Quite reliable Respectable validity Little use of modern psychometric theory Movement to online completion Assessing abilities along with interests 35 Important lesson And do not forget …. these are commercial products (like many tests) therefore … questions are not publicly available 36 Attitude Measures Components Cognitive, behavioral, emotional Measures concentrate on cognitive elements The number of attitudes: huge Many attitude scales; none widely used 37 Types of scales: Likert Well known Identify target Large number of items Agree-disagree format; 5-point likert scale Sum ratings (method of summated ratings) Item analysis to get final items Different types of scales: Likert, Thurstone, Guttman 38 Example From Likert (1932) Internationalism scale (opinion polling): All men who have the opportunity should enlist in the Citizens Military Training Camps Strongly approve Approve Undicided Disapprove Strongly Disapprove 39 Thurstone Scales Read true the text, not much used in practice, no questions on exam 40 Guttman Scales I do not agree with the book, although Guttman scaling is not often used, probabilistic versions of Guttman scaling are popular to construct attitude and other non-cognitive 41 Guttman scaling For example, Mokken scaling First, what is Guttman scaling ? (see next slide) Assume we have 8 items We can order items according to increasing difficulty Then it is expected that, given a person’s total score, say X = 4 he/she will answer the 4 easiest items correctly and the other item incorrectly, for a total score X = 2, the 2 easiest items etc. 42 This is a Guttman scale Guttman Scale + = gives a correct answer; - = gives an incorrect answer; 43 often we also use 1 for correct answer and 0 for incorrect answer Mokken scaling However, in practice we almost never encounter these data because this is unrealistic, persons answering behavior is not completely in agreement with a Guttman scale, more realistic is item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Person A + + - - - - - - Person B + - + + - - - - Person C + + + - + + + - 44 Mokken scaling To model this more realistic behavior: Mokken scaling Using Mokken scaling we check to what degree our data are in agreement with the Guttman model using scalability coefficient: H H is between 0 and 1, the higher the value the better the scale, the better we are able to scale persons H = 0 bad scale H = 1 very good scale 45 Mokken scaling Note that items are ordered according to increasing difficulty Then, how many Guttman errors are there for person, A, B and C? Answer: A – no Guttman errors, B – 2 Guttman errors, C – 3 Guttman errors item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Person A + + - - - - - - Person B + - + + - - - - Person C + + + - + + + - Why? Error is defined as the number of minus signs to 46 the left of every plus sign Guttman errors 1 2 3 4 5 Peter 1 0 0 1 0 Marvin 1 1 0 0 1 Hajo 0 1 1 1 0 Tom 1 1 1 0 0 …… (other persons) 5 items, 4 persons, assume that the items are ordered according to increasing difficulty! 47 Then Tom has a perfect Guttman pattern Which person(s) has (have) a perfect Guttman pattern? person item 1 2 3 4 Susan 1 1 0 1 Tom 1 0 1 1 Marvin 1 0 0 1 Hajo 0 0 1 1 a. Susan b. Tom and Marvin 48 c. Marvin Answer ! person1 item 4 1 3 2 Susan 1 1 0 1 Tom 1 1 1 0 Marvin 1 1 0 0 Hajo 1 0 1 0 The items are now first ordered according to increasing difficulty (p-value) and now you can see that Tom and Marvin both have a perfect Guttman pattern 49 Statistical versus clinical prediction (chap 5) Sarbin (1943) prediction of college grade point average using (!) High school ranks + college aptitude test r =.45 (2) Judgment of counselors on the basis of interviews High school ranks + college aptitude test r =.35 This was (and is) very counterintuitive: more information leads to worse prediction and expert judgment makes things worse Meehl (1954) Judgment: Two basic options 1. “mechanical” or statistical prediction: 51 X1 + X2+ X3 = Xt 2. Expert (“clinical”) judgment: Expert combines information “in the head” Some very counterintuitive findings … Statistical methods are more effective than human judgment for combining multiple data features people do not minimize error, they introduce error But as long they can construct a coherent story they will believe in it irrespective of any empirical evidence (cf Kahneman) Meehl (1956): “the first rule (..) to predict a patient’s or student’s behavior is to carefully to avoid talking to him and the second rule is to avoid thinking of him” Not discussed in the lectures but still important What is correction for attenuation ? What other career interest inventories do we have? 53 Summarizing this lecture It is important to know some basics about projective tests, but these tests are controversial Interest and attitude questionnaires have similarities with personality questionnaires Basic principles and construction of interest and attitude scales is important 54