Medical Latin PDF

Министерство здравоохранения Республики Беларусь Учреждение образования “Гродненский государственный медицинский университет” Кафедра иностранных языков Kondratyev, Dmitri Vylegzhanina, Olga...

Министерство здравоохранения Республики Беларусь Учреждение образования “Гродненский государственный медицинский университет” Кафедра иностранных языков Kondratyev, Dmitri Vylegzhanina, Olga Knyazeva, Juliya Latin and Fundamentals of Medical Terminology for Medical Students Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus as course of Latin for foreigh students for education institutions providing higher medical education ЛАТИНСКИЙ ЯЗЫК И ОСНОВЫ МЕДИЦИНСКОЙ ТЕРМИНОЛОГИИ для студентов-медиков Учебное пособие Допущено Министерством образования Республики Беларусь в качестве учебного пособия для иностранных студентов учреждений, обеспечивающих получение высшего медицинского образования Гродно 2005  2 УДК 811.124:61(075.8) ББК 81.2 Латин я 73 К72 Авторы: доц. Д.К. Кондратьев, О.Е. Вылегжанина, Ю.В. Князева Под общ. ред. доц. Кондратьева Д.К. Рецензенты: зав. каф. иностранных языков Гомельского государственного медицинского университеита, доц. С.А. Лин; зав. каф. латинского языка Белорусского государственного медицинского университета, доц. А.З. Цисик. Кондратьев Д.К. К72 Latin and Fundamentals of Medical Terminology. For Medical Students /Д.К. Кондратьев, О.Е. Вылегжанина, Ю.В. Князева – Гродно: ГрГМУ, 2005 – 250 с. ISBN 985-496-063-3 Учебное пособие предназначено для иностранных студентов лечебного, педиатрического и медико-психологического факультетов медицинских вузов, изучающих дисциплину «Латинский язык и основы медицинской терминологии» на английском языке. This manual is meant for foreigh students studying the course “Latin and Fundamentals of Medical Terminology” at Medical Faculties, Faculties of Pediatrics and Faculties of Medical Psychlogy of Medical Institutions of Higher Education (the language of instruction: English). УДК 811.124:61(075.8) ББК 81.2 Латин я 73 ISBN 985-496-063-3 © Д.К. Кондратьев, О.Е. Вылегжанина, Ю.В. Князева, 2005  3 Preface Textbook “Latin and Fundamentals of Medical Terminology” is designed to be a comprehensive textbook covering the entire curriculum for medical students in this subject. The course “Latin and Fundamentals of Medical Terminology” is a two-semester course that introduces students to the Latin and Greek medical terms that are commonly used in Medicine. The aim of the two-semester course is to achieve an active command of basic grammatical phenomena and rules with a special stress on the system of the language and on the specific character of medical terminology, and that to the extent that enables an active use of Latin and Greek medical terms and promote further own work with them. The textbook consists of three basic parts: 1. Anatomical Terminology: The primary rank is occupied by anatomical nomenclature whose international version remains Latin in the full extent. All of the anatomical nomenclatures produced so far have used Latin as their base. The first official Latin anatomical nomenclature was introduced at a congress of the Anatomische Gesellschaft in Basle in 1895, the last edition, called Terminologia Anatomica, was introduced by the International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee and published in 1998. Latin as a dead language does not develop and does not belong to any country or nation. It has a number of advantages that classical languages offer, its constancy, international character and neutrality. 2. Clinical Terminology: Learning clinical terminology you should realize that it is in many ways like learning a foreign language. Like a foreign language, medical terms often sound strange and confusing. As a result of being unable to understand the words, they will have very little meaning to you. But it is wrong to assume that only highly educated people can use and understand them. Medical terms sound like a foreign language because the vast majority of them have Greek and Latin origin. So, for example, the word "gastrectomy" is of a Greek origin and means “the  4 total removal of a stomach”. “Gastrectomy” comes from the Greek word "gaster" which means "stomach" and the Greek word "ectome", which means "cut out". The main reason of using these words is that medical terms provide one word that describes something that would otherwise take many words to say. For example, it is quicker to say "gastrectomy" than to say "the total removal of a stomach ". You will be able to learn medical terms by understanding the origins of these words in Latin and Greek. 3. Pharmaceutical Terminology: In pharmaceutical terminology Latin has, for the time being, remained a functioning means of international communication, guaranteed by the European Pharmacopoeia (1996) and by the corpus of International Non-proprietary Names (1992, 1996), even though in the future an ever stronger competition of national languages should be taken into account. But even though national languages have been favored in prescriptions in some countries, in many countries Latin has continued to be preferred and the standard international nomenclature of drugs is based on the Latin version. The Latin version of the pharmacopoeia has been used in Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, etc. The Role of the Latin and Greek Languages Greek and Roman cultures are the foundations of western culture - its literature, ideas, art, politics, and conceptions of the individual. Greek myth is still a shared fund of images and narratives that express human experience. Latin is the major source of English vocabulary, and Greek provides scientific language in many fields. Greek and Roman cultures help us to understand the relationship between western culture and other cultural systems and place ourselves better in the world. The study of Latin and Greek culture provides students with a better understanding of the roots of their own culture, which has been so strongly  5 influenced by Roman and Greek art, Medicine, law, and religion. The pursuit of Latin and Greek language skills not only provides the broadening experience which comes from learning how to think and express oneself in another language, but can also be great aid to building vocabulary and language skills in English. Latin and Greek literature and mythology introduce you to classical authors whose excellence is beyond question and whose works and genres have influenced Western literature down to our own day. Greek is the language of Homer, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Diogenes, Plutarch and the Bible. Latin is the language of Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Vergil, Horace, Ovid, St. Augustine and St.Francis of Assisi. After the Roman conquest of Britain under Emperor Claudius, the native Picts' Celtic language first became infused with Latin, then merged with the new invaders' Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) dialects, and finally became English. Thus, Greek and Latin can be great aids to building vocabulary and language skills in English As the Romans conquered the then known world, Latin became the universal language of Italy and the provinces. Many centuries after the fall of Rome, Latin still ruled supreme. To this very day, Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, and during the formative period of the western European languages it was incorporated in every one of them. The Latin language has been around for more than 2500 years, and throughout the years has played a leading role in various fields. Not only was Latin the language of the Romans in antiquity, but at a later stage it also became the language of administrators, the Catholic Church, scholars and artists. Even now the Latin language is present in a prominent way, especially in Medicine. Science is of international nature. The development of technical languages in the individual branches of science is connected with frequent borrowing of foreign language lexical material which is mostly of Latin or Greek origin. Greek and  6 Latin represent the traditional language material to be used in medical terminology. English medical terminology developed from medieval Latin terminology, which had absorbed a developed Greek terminology. Greek medicine migrated to Rome at an early date, and many Latin terms crept into its terminology. Only a few medical terms came from the oldest developmental period of the English language (from Anglo-Saxon). Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th Century, so all medical texts were written in Latin.  7 Contents Part I. Anatomical Terminology 1. Lesson 1. PHONETICS: READING AND p. 9 PRONUNCIATION 2. Lesson 2. ACCENT RULES, WORD STRESSING p. 19 3. Lesson 3. STRUCTURE OF ANATOMICAL TERMS. p. 26 NOUN AND ITS GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 4. Lesson 4. ADJECTIVE. TWO GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES p. 37 5. Lesson 5. DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES p. 45 6. Lesson 6. LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. p. 52 MASCULINE GENDER 7. Lesson 7. LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. p. 59 FEMININE GENDER 8. Lesson 8. LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. NEUTER p. 64 GENDER 9. Lesson 9. NOMINATIVE PLURAL OF NOUNS AND p. 68 ADJECTIVES 10. Lesson 10. GENITIVE PLURAL OF NOUNS AND p. 74 ADJECTIVES 11. Lesson 11. PREFIXES IN THE ANATOMICAL p. 79 TERMINOLOGY 12. Lesson 12. SAMPLE FINAL TEST p. 84 Part II. Clinical Terminology 1. Lesson 1. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 86 2. Lesson 2. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 94 3. Lesson 3. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 98 4. Lesson 4. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 102 5. Lesson 5. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 107 6. Lesson 6. GREEK & LATIN COMPONENT ELEMENTS p. 112  8 7. Lesson 7. SAMPLE FINAL TEST p. 117 Part III. Pharmaceutical Terminology 1. Lesson 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PHARMACEUTICAL p. 102 TERMINOLOGY 2. Lesson 2. STANDARD PRESCRIPTION PHRASES p. 107 INDICATING ORDERS AND INSTRUCTIONS 3. Lesson 3. MEDICAL PRESCRIPTION p. 112 LIQUIDS AND SEMISOLIDS IN PRESCRIPTIONS 4. Lesson 4. PRESCRIPTION REGULATIONS FOR p. 102 TABLETS, SUPPOSITORIES AND OPHTHALMIC FILMS SOLIDS AND OTHER PHARMACEUTICAL FORMS IN PRESCRIPTIONS 5. Lesson 5. LATIN NAMES OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS p. 107 NAMES OF ACIDS, OXIDES, PEROXIDES, HYDROXIDES 6. Lesson 6. LATIN NAMES OF SALTS IN PRESCRIPTIONS p. 112 8. Lesson 7. SAMPLE FINAL TEST p. 117 Part IV. Appendix 1. Syllabus 2. Latin-English Anatomy Dictionary 3. English-Latin Anatomy Dictionary 4. Greek & Latin-English Clinical Dictionary 5. Latin-English Pharmaceutical Dictionary 6. English-Latin Pharmaceutical Dictionary 7. Common Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions 8. Sample Final Examination  9 PART I. ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY LESSON 1 _____________________________________________ PHONETICS: READING AND PRONUNCIATION In this lesson you will: Become familiar with the Roman alphabet. Learn to pronounce Latin vowels and consonants. Learn to pronounce Latin diphthongs and digraphs. Learn to read Latin words and word combinations. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Roman alphabet. II. Pronunciation of vowels and diphthongs. III. Pronunciation of consonants and digraphs. IV. Pronunciation of letter combinations. V. Exercises. VI. Vocabulary We cannot be sure exactly how the ancient Romans pronounced the alphabet and words. We should use the so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin, which aims to represent approximately the pronunciation of classical times. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julĭus Caesar); and in familiar quotations, as, e plurĭbus unum; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiōri; veni, vidi, vici, etc.  10 I. ROMAN ALPHABET The Roman alphabet contains 25 letters: six vowels and nineteen consonants. The English language also uses the Roman alphabet with the additional letter W. You should learn the Roman alphabet that follows: Pronunci- Letter Name Examples – Latin (English) ation Aa a a as in “under”: cáput (head) Bb be b as in “bath”: bráchium (shoulder) ts as in “plants”: cérvix (neck) Cc tse k as in “coner”: cósta (rib), crísta (crest) Dd de d as in “danger”: déxter (right) Ee e e as in “met”: vértebra Ff ef f as in “fast”: fácies (surface, face) Gg ge g as in “get”: gáster (stomach) h Hh ha (english as in “hand”: hómo (man) like) Ii I i as in “sit”: vagína (vagina) Jj yot (j) as in “yes”: májor (large) Kk ka k as in “key”: skéleton Ll el l as in “life”: lábium (lip) Mm em m as in “medical”: meátus (passage) Nn en n as in “night”: násus (nose) Oo o o as in “spot”: córpus (body) p Pp pe as in “palmer”: pálpebra (eyelid) Qq ku k as in “quite”: quádriceps (four-headed) Rr er r as in “rend”: ren (kidney)  11 s as in “solve”: solútio (solution) Ss es z as in “nose”: incisúra (slit or notch) Tt te t as in “ten”: tráctus (tract) Uu u u as in “put”: púlmo (lung) Vv ve v as in “van”: válva (valve) Xx iks ks as in “next”: rádix (root) ypsilon Yy (igrek) i as in “crystal”: týmpanum (drum) Zz zeta z as in “zero”: zygóma (check-bone) II. PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS The Latin vowels are similar to the corresponding English vowels. a as in “under”: cáput (head) e as in “met”: vértebra i as in “sit”: vagína (vagina) y as in “crystal”: týmpanum (drum) o as in “spot”: córpus (body) u as in “put”: púlmo (lung) Diphthong is a combination of two vowel pronounced together in one syllable. au is pronounced as in “down” : áuris (ear) eu is pronounced [eu] : pléura (pleura) III. PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS AND DIGRAPHS The Latin consonants are similar to the corresponding English consonants (see under “Roman alphabet”), except c, g, j, l, s, x and z.  12 Before e, i, y, ae, oe is pronounced like /ts/. It is similar to the ts c of English plants: cérvix /tserviks/ - neck: cýstis /tsistis/ - bladder; caécum /tsekum/ - cecum. Before a, o, u, before consonants and at the end of a word it is c pronounced as /k/: cáput – head: cósta – rib; cutis – skin; crísta – crest; lac – milk. g Is always pronounced as /g/ in give, get, go. j Is pronounced as /j/ in yes, you, young. l Is always palatalized and soft as in look, live, life. Between two vowels or between a vowel and the voiced consonant m or n is pronounced as /z/ in nose, rose, but before s vowels, consonants and at the end of a word it is pronounced as /s/ in solve, slow, maps. Is pronounced as /ks/ in next, larynx, but sometimes between x vowels it is pronounced as /gz/ in examination, example. In Greek words is always pronounced as /z/ in zero, zone, but in z words of other origin such as Zíncum (zinc), influénza (grippe) it is pronounced as /ts/. One of the main differences between English and Latin consonants is that in Latin p, t, k are not aspirated (i.e. there is no puff of breath after them) as in English. Another difference is that “l” is always palatalized, or soft. Digraph is a group of two letters representing one sound. There are two vowel digraphs in Latin: ae/oe Representing the sound similar to the English /e/ in pen: vertebrae (vertebrae), oedema (swelling). Attention !!! - Two dots placed over the letter e indicate that ae or oe are not digraphs and their letters denote different sounds: áër /a-er/ - air; díploё /diploe/ - spongy substance. Besides, there are several consonant digraphs commonly used in Latin. They are pronounced as follows:  13 ch as /kh/: núcha /nuha/ neck ph as /f/: ráphe /rafe/ - suture rh as /r/: rhéxis /reksis/ - rupture th as /t/: thórax /toraks/ - chest IV. PRONUNCIATION OF LETTER COMBINATIONS These letter combinations are pronounced as follows: as /ngv/ before vowels: língua /lingva/ - tongue, language; ngu as /ngu/ before consonants: ángulus /angulus/ - angle qu as /kw/ áqua /akwa/ - water as /sv/ before vowels a,e: suávis /svavis/ - pleasant; su as /su/ in different syllables: súlcus /sulkus/ - furrow or groove as /tsi/ before vowels: spátium /spatsium/ - space; articulátio /artikuliatsio/ - joint; ti as /ti/ before consonants, after s,t,x: tíbia /tibia/ - shinebone; óstium /ostium/ - opening. V. EXERCISES 1. Read the following words paying special attention to the vowels: ála (wing), mínor (small), artéria (artery), lámina (plate), abdómen (belly), fóvea (pit), fíbula (fibula; long, thin outer bone from knee to ankle), fémur (thigh- bone), línea áspera (rough line), pálma (palm), infundíbulum (funnel), régio (region), inférior (lower), antérior (situated in front of), membrána (membrane), manúbrium stérni (first or upper part of breast-bone), véna (vein), húmerus (bone of upper arm), gingíva (gum), úlna (medial bone of forearm), úvula (lingula), hépar (liver), hílus (hilus).  14 2. Read the following words paying special attention to the vowels i and j: intestínum (intestine), iáter (physician, doctor), páries inférior (lower wall), ínsula (island), junctúra (junction), júgum (iúgum) (eminence, mound), juguláris (iuguláris) (jugular), canális palatínus májor (máior) (greater palatine canal), fóssa infratemporális (infratemporal fossa), tubérculum május (máius) (greater tubercle), jejúnum (ieiúnum) (jejunum), ilíacus (iliac). 3. Read the following words paying special attention to Latin vowel digraphs and diphthongs: áuris (ear), autopsía (necropsy), Áurum (gold), pléura (pleura), neurológia (neurology), pneumonía (inflammation of the lungs), cóstae (ribs), oedéma (swelling), anaemía (anemia), gangraéna (gangrene), amoéba (ameba), áër (air), poëta (poet), Áloë (aloe), aërophobía (morbid fear of drafts or of fresh air), vértebrae (vertebrae), caécus (cecal), oesóphagus (oesophagus), auriculáris (auricular), córpus vesícae félleae (body of gallbladder), aponeurósis (aponeurosis), pseudomembrána (false membrane), uropoёticus (urogegenus/ urinogenous), díploë (diploe), aurícula (auricle), haematopoёticus (hemopoietic), dýspnoë (dispnea), régio glutaéa (gluteal region), peronaéus (fibular), neurocránium (skull), caudális (caudal). 4. Read the following words paying particular attention to the consonants c, s, l, x and z: fácies (surface), cérvix (neck), cérebrum (brain), cýstis (cyst), cytológia (cytology), cósta (rib), cáput (head), córpus (body), colúmna (pillar), cávum (cavity), cóllum (neck), crísta (crest), lac (milk), canális (canal), súlcus (furrow, groove), árcus (arch), córnu (horn), stérnum (breastbone), scápula (shoulder- blade), os (bone), spína (spine), násus (nose), básis (base), plásma (plasma), organísmus (organism), squamósus (scaly), tuberósitas (tuberosity), lóbus (lobe), látus (wide), músculus (muscle), lábium (lip), ángulus (angle), ánulus (ring), ápex (top, summit), rádix (root), déxter (right), thórax (chest), xiphoídeus (swordshaped), zóna (zone), zygóma (cheek-bone), horizontális (horizontal),  15 cávitas (cavity), ócciput (back of the head), trúncus (trunk), caécus (cecal), claviculáris (clavicular), accessórius (additional), músculus (muscle), scéleton (skeleton), cruciátus (cruciform), ceméntum (cement), cávum cránii (cavity of skull), sáccus lacrimális (tear sac), cartilágo (cartilage), cóndylus (condyle), bíceps (two-headed), céllula (cell), córpus (body), súlci palatíni (palatine grooves), vértebrae cervicáles (cervical vertebrae), vértebrae sacráles (sacral vertebrae), os coccýgis (coccygeal bone), forámina sacrália dorsália (dorsal sacral openings), búcca (cheeck), búccae (cheeks). 5. Read the following words paying special attention to the letter combinations ch, ph, qu, rh, th, ngu and ti: núcha (nape), chóle (bile), chórda (cord), chárta (paper), phálanx (fingerbone), diaphrágma (diaphragm), phárynx (pharynx), áqua (water), squamósus (scaly), quádriceps (four-headed), rhizóma (rhizome), rhéxis (rupture), rheumatísmus (rheumatism), thórax (chest), rhinorrhagía (bleeding from the nose), therapía (treatment), thrómbus (blood clot), língua (tongue, language), únguis (nail), sánguis (blood), unguéntum (ointment), ángulus (angle), linguláris (lingular), trianguláris (triangular), tíbia (shinebone), téstis (testis), tinctúra (tincture), óstium (opening), articulátio (joint), substántia (substance), spátium (space), solútio (solution), curátio (treatment), vítium (defect) 6. Read the following words paying particular attention to the consonant s: fóssa (cavity), húmerus (bone of upper arm), mesentérium (mesentery), impréssio (impression), sínus (holow curvature or cavity), sigmoídeus (sigmoid), séptum nási (nasal septum), canális hypoglossális (hyppoglossal canal), procéssus styloídeus (styloid process), básis cránii (base of skull), segméntum (segment), pars petrósa (petrosal part), chiásma (chiasm), fissúra (fissure (slit)), dens incisívus (incisor tooth), platýsma (subcutaneous neck muscle), mesogástrium (middle part of abdomen), mucósus (mucosal),  16 nasolacrimális (nasolacrimal), súlcus sínus transvérsi (transversal hollow groove) 7. Read the following words paying particular attention to the pronunciation of qu and ngu: squáma occipitális (occipital scale), lámina quadrigémina (quadrigeminal plate), quadrátus (square), vértebra quínta (the fifth vertebra), línea oblíqua (oblique line), língua (tongue, language), língula (small tongue), inguinális (inguinal), únguis (nail), squamósus (scale-like), os tríquetrum (trihedral bone), sublinguális (sublingual), ángulus (angle), sánguis (blood), sanguíneus (circulatory (bloody)). 8. Read the following words paying particular attention to the pronunciation of ti: addúctio (adduction), abdúctio (abduction), periodóntium (peridontium), supinátio (supination), articulátio (joint), eminéntia (eminence), tíbia (shinbone), óstium (mouth, aperture), spátia intercostália (intercostal space), digéstio (digestion), distántia trochantérica (trochanteric distance), substántia spongiósa (spongy substance), forámina nutrícia (nourishing openings), míxtio (mixture), masticátio (chewing). 9. Read the following words paying particular attention to the pronunciation of digraphs and letter combinations: núcha (nape of neck), thyreoídeus (thyroid), thórax (chest), línea núchae supérior (upper nachal line), tubérculum pharyngéum (pharyngeal tubercle), os sphenoidále (wedge-shaped bone), fóssa hypophysiális (hypophysial cavity), labyrínthus ethmoidális (cribriform labyrinth), kyphósis (hump back (arterior curvature)), hemisphérium (hemisphere), sectiónes hypothálami (sections of hypothalamus), splanchnológia (splanchnology), sphíncter (sphincter), brónchus (main branch of trachea), dúctus cholédochus (common bile duct), os scaphoídeum (boat-shaped bone), phalánges (bones of fingers or toes),  17 sýmphysis (symphysis (adhesion)), synchondrósis (synchondrosis), ísthmus (isthmus), trúncus brachicephálicus (brachiocephalic trunk), artéria ophthálmica (ophthalmic artery), véna saphéna (saphenous vein), nódus lympháticus (lymphatic node), dúctus thorácicus (thoracic duct), spinothalámicus (spinothalamic), pars sympáthica (sympathetic part), cávum subarachnoidále (subarachnoidal cavity), os íschii (ischial bone), incisúra ischiádica májor (major ischiadic notch), aquaedúctus mesencéphali (aqueduct of midbrain). VI. VOCABULARY Part 1. 1. ala, ae f wing 2. costa, ae f rib 3. crista, ae f crest 4. fibŭla, ae f fibula, splint-bone 5. fossa, ae f shallow depression or cavity 6. glandŭla, ae f gland 7. lamĭna, ae f plate 8. liněa, ae f line 9. mandibŭla, ae f lower jaw 10.maxilla, ae f upper jaw 11.orbĭta, ae f eyesocket 12.porta, ae f entry 13.scapŭla, ae f shoulder blade 14.spina, ae f spine 15.tibĭa, ae f shinebone, larger of two bones of leg 16.vena, ae f vein 17.vertěbra, ae f vertebra  18 Part 2. 18.apertūra, ae f aperture, opening 19.aorta, ae f main artery of body 20.arterĭa, ae f artery 21.capsŭla, ae f capsule, membrane or saclike structure 22.chorda, ae f cord 23.cochlěa, ae f cochlea 24.columna, ae f column 25.concha, ae f concha 26.fascĭa, ae f fascia 27.fověa, ae f small pit or depression 28.incisūra, ae f notch 29.lingua, ae f tongue, language 30.nucha, ae f nape of neck 31.sella, ae f saddle 32.sutūra, ae f suture; line of junction 33.vagīna, ae f sheath 34.valvŭla, ae f small valva; valve  19 LESSON 2 _____________________________________________ ACCENT RULES, WORD STRESSING In this lesson you will: Become familiar with the main rules of word stress in Latin This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Division of words into syllables. II. The main rules for the position of an accent in Latin. III. Graphically signed stress. IV. Accent in words of Greek origin. V. Exercises. VI. Vocabulary I. DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES One of the syllables in a word is always more accentuated than the others. We say that the syllable is stressed. To determine which syllable is stressed the word should be divided into syllables. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs. In Latin syllables are usually counted from the end of a word. Examples: Ar- te- ri- a (artery) 4 3 2 1 Ar- ti- cu- la- ti- o (joint) 6 5 4 3 2 1  20 II. THE MAIN RULES FOR THE POSITION OF AN ACCENT IN LATIN. 1. The final syllable of a word is not stressed. 2. In disyllabic words (consisting of two syllables) the second syllable (from the end) is always stressed. 3. In polysyllabic words (consisting of more than two syllables) the second or the third syllable from the end of the word is stressed. To stress correctly a Latin word you should: 1. divide a word into its syllables, 2. find the next to last syllable, 3. determine whether the next to last syllable is stressed or not. If the next to last syllable is not stressed, the accent is shifted to the third syllable from the end of the word. The basic rules when the next to last syllable is stressed/not stressed: Rules Examples Next to last 1. if it contains a diphthong such as pe – ri – to – naé - um syllable is ae, oe: pe – ro – naé - us stressed 2. if a vowel of this syllable is li- ga- mén-tum followed by two or more ref- lé- xus consonants or letters «x»; «z»: gly – cy – rrhý – za 3. if it contains such suffixes as: me- di- á- lis -al-, -ar-, -at-, -in-, -ur-, -os-, di-gi- tá- tus -iv-. fib- ró- sus Next to last 1. if its vowel is followed by ar- té- ri- a syllable is not another vowel su- pé- ri- or stressed (accent is 2. if its vowel is followed by such vér- te- bra shifted to the letter combinations as: quá- dru- plex third syllable br, pl, tr, trí- que- trus from the end)  21 3. if its vowel is followed by cho – lé – do - chus diagraphs ch, ph, th, rh. stó – ma – chus 4. if it contains such suffixes as: tho- rá- ci- cus -ic-, -ol-, -ul-. fo- vé- o- la lín- gu- la III. GRAPHICALLY SIGNED STRESS If the word can’t be read according to any stress rule you should consult a dictionary. Both stressed and unstressed syllables are graphically signed with the special marks. Stressed syllables are graphically signed by a stroke (-): For example: pylōrus - pylórus. Unstressed syllables are indicated in this book by a circumflex ( ˘ ) on the vowel. For example: skelĕton - skéleton. IV. ACCENT IN WORDS OF GREEK ORIGIN As for the words of Greek origin you should pay attention to the following peculiarities: In Greek clinical terms with the ending - ia the letter «i» is always stressed: myopathía - myopathia dysentería - dysentery hypotonía - hypotension Except for the words containing Greek root - logia: biológia - biology pharmacológia - pharmacology  22 V. EXERCISES 1. Stress the following words observing the rules of Latin word- stressing: columna, processus, cerebrum, bursa, cavum, palpebra, profundus, transversus, atlas I, internus, bulbus, gangraena, refluxus, cauda, linea, rabies, barba, reflexus, ampulla, collum, tibia, sinister, cornu, spurius, Oryza, situs, xiphoiděus, facies, anatomia, ramus, coccygēus, caries, tabuletta, minorpodagra, pterygoiděus, externus, maxilla, curatio, solutio, substantia, eminentia, Belladonna, ligamentum, vertebra, costa, apex, arcus, minor, manus, vomer, sternum, sella. 2. Stress the words: apertura (opening), anulus (ring), angulus (angle), foveola (pit), incisura (notch, split), tuberculum (tubercle), spinosus (spinous), thoracicus (thoracic), articularis (articular), opticus (visual), basilaris (basic), cervicalis (cervical), musculus (muscle), fissura (cleft), lateralis (lateral), vertebralis (vertebral), lumbalis (lumbar), fossula (small depression or cavity), ventriculus (ventricle, stomach), glandula (gland), scapula (shoulder-blade), mandibula (lower jaw), clavicula (clavicle), fibula (fibula), maxillaris (maxillary), chronicus (chronic), gastricus (gastric), pelvinus (pelvic), fibrosus (fibrous), gelatinosus (gelatinous), venosus (venous), squamosus (scaly), spirituosus (spiritual), capitatus (capitate), destillatus (destilled), ceratus (waxy), auditivus (auditory), vegetativus (vegetative), incubativus (incubative), incisivus (incisive, cutting), junctura (junction), sutura (suture), temperatura (temperature). 3. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms: costa fluctuans (free rib), vertebra thoracica (thoracic vertebra), columna vertebralis (spinal column), processus articularis superior (higher joint appendix), tuberculum anterius (anterior tubercle), facies articularis anterior  23 (anterior joint surface), sulcus arteriae vertebralis (vertebral furrow of artery), nucleus pulposus (pulpal nucleus), anulus fibrosus (fibrous ring of tissue about an opening), ligamentum longitutinale anterius (anterior longitudunal ligament), juncturae columnae vertebralis et cranii (junctions of spinal column and skull), articulatio atlantooccipitalis (joint between first cervical vertebra and occipital bone), canalis vertebralis (vertebral canal), sulcus costovertebralis minor (major) (small (large) costovertebral furrow), incisurae costales (costal slits), ligamentum capĭtis costae (ligament of the head of rib), articulatio capĭtis costae (joint of the head of rib), spatia intercostalia (intercostal spaces), apertura thorācis superior (inferior) (superior (inferior) thoracic apertura), angulus infrasternalis (angle, situated below or beneath sternum), fissura sterni (narrow slit of breast bone). 4. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms: medulla ossium (bone marrow), arcus vertebrae (vertebral arch), membrum inferius (leg), epigastrium (part of abdomen immediately over stomach), processus transversus (transverse process), substantia compacta (thick substance), palpebra superior (upper eyelid), corpus maxillae (body of upper jaw), quadruplex (fourfold), facies poplitea (popliteal surface), ductus choledochus (bile duct). 5. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms: digitatus (pertaining to finger or toe), hiatus sacralis (sacral opening), cribrosus (sieve-shaped), vertebralis (vertebral), incisura supraorbitalis (supraorbital notch), clavicularis (pertaining to collar-bone), fossa pterygopalatina (pterygopalatine cavity), processus zygomaticus (zygomatic process), hamulus pterygoiděus (wing-shaped hook), mentalis (pertaining to chin), sulcus pulmonalis (pulmonary furrow), forāmen spinosum (spinous opening), fossa glandulae lacrimalis (shallow depression of lacrimal gland), pubicus (pertaining  24 to lower part of abdomen, covered with hair), pars squamosa (scaly (platelike) part), nodi pancreatici (pancreatic nodes), pelvinus (pelvic), foveolae granulares (small granular spit), glomerulus (small ball), incisura vertebralis (vertebral slit). 6. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms: alae voměris (wings of thin bone separating nostrils), pars superior duodēni (upper part of duodenum), cartilaginěus (pertaining to cartilage), articulatio sacrococcygēa (sacral-coccygeal joint), gingīva (gum), trachēa (windpipe), apertura thorācis inferior (lower opening of chest), orgănon gustus (taste organ), osteologia (science about bones), glossopharyngēus (pertaining to tongue and pharynx), myologia (science about muscles), orbĭta oculi (eye-pit), pylōrus (opening of stomach into duodenum), peritonēum (serous membrane lining abdominal cavity), metathalămus (part of brain behind visual tuber), minĭmus (smallest), musculus levator fornĭcis (muscle that raises fornix), os coccýgis (last bone of spinal column), peronēus (pertaining to fibular bone), carpēus (pertaining to wrist), glutēus (pertaining to buttocks), nervus trigemĭnus (trigeminal nerve), labyrinthus ethmoidalis (sieve-shaped labyrinth (ethmoidal bone)). 7. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms: lamĭna arcus vertebrae (plate of vertebral arch), forāmen rotundum (round opening), vagīna processus styloiděi (sheath of awl-shaped appendix), tuberosĭtas pterygoiděa (pterygoid tuberosity), palātum osseum (bony palate), ligamentum popliteum oblīquum (oblique popliteal ligament), cavĭtas oris propria (proper oral cavity), atrium meātus medii (atrium middle meatus), cartilāgo thyroiděa (thyroid cartilage), vesīca urinaria (bladder), extremĭtas inferior (lower extremity). 8. Practise stressing the following Latin anatomical terms:  25 processus accessorius (additional appendix), arcus posterior atlāntis (posterior arch of first cervical vertebra), lineae transversae (transverse lines), eminentia cruciformis (cruciform eminence), facies anterior (anterior surface), os triquetrum (three-sided bone), basis patellae (base of kneecap), recessus sacciformis (sacciform recess), spatia interossea metacarpi (interosseous spaces of metacarpus), labium superius (upper lip), pancreas accessorium (additional pancreas), regio respiratoria (respiratory region), bifurcatio trachēae (bifurcation of trachea). VI. VOCABULARY Masculine 1. angŭlus, i m angle 2. canalicŭlus, i m small canal 3. muscŭlus, i m muscle 4. nasus, i m nose 5. nuclěus, i m spheroid body within a cell 6. pedicŭlus, i m pedicle, small foot 7. radĭus, i m thicker and shorter bone of forearm 8. sulcus, i m furrow or groove Neuter 9. brachĭum, i n upper arm 10. cavum, i n cavity 11. collum, i n neck 12. cranĭum, i n skull 13. dorsum, i n back 14. membrum, i n member, extremity 15. palātum, i n palate 16. septum, i n partition, dividing wall 17. tubercŭlum, i n tubercle; small rounded swelling  26 LESSON 3 STRUCTURE OF ANATOMICAL TERMS. NOUN AND ITS GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES In this lesson you will: Become familiar with structure of anatomical terms. Learn grammatical categories of Latin nouns. Learn how to determine the stem, the gender and the declension of nouns. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Anatomical terminology. II. Structure of anatomical terms. III. Grammatical categories of a noun. IV. Gender V. Number VI. Case VII. Dictionary form of a noun. VIII. Declension IX. Stem of nouns X. Exercises. XI. Vocabulary I. ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY Anatomical terminology is a system of terms used in Anatomy. The revision of modern anatomical terminology was initiated in 1887. More than a hundred years later the new Terminologia Anatomica - International Anatomical Terminology was finally accepted by the International Federation of Association of Anatomists (IFAA) in 1997. Anatomical terminology is the foundation of medical terminology and Latin is the international anatomical language. Only  27 Latin is the international basis for creating equivalent terms in other languages. English is not the basis for terminology in other languages. There is only a very little Latin grammar necessary to dissect anatomical terms. One needs only know about nouns and adjectives, and even then only two cases in the singular and plural. The two cases are Nominative (subjective) and Genitive (possessive). Noun is a name of a thing: digĭtus (finger), costa (rib) etc. Adjective is a word expressing a quality of a thing: major (large), longus (long), frontālis (frontal). II. STRUCTURE OF ANATOMICAL TERMS The anatomical term is a word used to name a definite unit or structure of a human body. Anatomical terms may consist of one, two, three, four and more words (up to 8). 1. One-Word Terms They consist of one noun in singular or plural: Costa (rib), costae (ribs) 2. Two-Word Terms They may consist of: a. two nouns in singular or plural: corpus vertěbrae (body of vertebra), corpŏra vertebrārum (bodies of vertebrae) b. a noun with an adjective: vertěbra thoracĭca (thoracic vertebra) 3. Three-Word Terms They may consist of: a. three nouns: ligamentum tubercŭli costae (ligament of tubercle of rib) b. a noun and two adjectives: processus articulāris superĭor (superior articular process) c. two nouns and an adjective: sulcus nervi spinālis (furrow of the spinal nerve)  28 4. Multiword Terms They may consist of several nouns and adjectives in singular and plural: Facĭes temporālis alae minōris ossis sphenoidālis (temporal surface of the smaller wing of the sphenoid bone). III. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF A NOUN The grammatical categories of a noun are as follows: 1. Gender 2. Number 3. Case 4. Declension GENDER There are three genders in Latin: masculine (masculīnum), feminine (feminīnum) and neuter (neutrum). In contrast to Latin English nouns have only a natural gender, i.e. according to their sex: nouns designating males are masculine (man, boy), nouns designating females are feminine (woman, girl), and nouns designating inanimates are in the neuter gender. Latin nouns have grammatical gender. Their gender is determined by the ending of Nominative singular. Thus, nouns ending in -a are feminine: scapŭla (shoulder blade), nouns ending in –us are masculine: muscŭlus (muscle), nouns ending in –um are neuter etc. The genders of a noun are indicated in the dictionaries with the letters: m - masculine f - feminine n – neuter  29 NUMBER In common with English there are two numbers in Latin - singular (singulāris) and plural (plurālis). Number is the grammatical category showing whether we speak of one thing ore more than one. In English the plural is formed by the endings –s or –es. In Latin the ending of the plural varies according to the gender and declension: Vertěbrae (vertebrae), nervi (nerves), corpŏra (bodies), facĭes (surfaces) etc. CASE Case is defined as the change of the noun form according to its relation to other words. In modern English we can speak about “common case” and “possessive case”. In contrast to English there are six cases in Latin, but only two cases are used in the anatomical terminology: English Latin and abbreviation Nominative Nominatīvus (Nom.) Genitive Genetīvus (Gen.) Nominative indicates the subject and answers the questions who, what. Genitive indicates the possession and answers the questions whose, of what. IV. DICTIONARY FORM OF A NOUN You should learn Latin nouns in their “Dictionary Form”. The dictionary form of a noun consists of three components: 1. the full form of Nominative singular; 2. the Genitive singular ending; 3. the designation of gender (with the letters m, f, n). E.g.: ala, ae f - wing;  30 sternum, i n - breast bone; ductus, us m - duct. V. DECLENSION There are five declensions in Latin; that is, five categories of nouns, each with its own endings. The declension is determined by the Genitive singular endings. First declension The nouns of feminine which end in -a are ascribed to the first declension. The Genitive form of the first declension nouns ends in –ae. E.g.: costa, ae f - rib vertěbra, ae f - vertebra Second declension To the second declension are referred masculines which end in –us and – er, and neuters which end in –um, -on. The Genitive form of the second declension nouns ends in –i. E.g.: nasus, i m - nose; collum, i n - neck; olecrănon, i n - tip of the elbow; cancer, cri m - cancer. Attention!!! – In the anatomical terminology there are no nouns which end in –er. The ending –on have the following anatomical terms: acromĭon, i n – acromial process colon, i n – large intestine encephălon, i n – brain ganglĭon, i n – ganglion olecrănon, i n - tip of the elbow  31 Third declension The third declension includes nouns of all the three genders which have different endings in Nominative singular and –is in Genitive singular. E.g.: canālis, is m - canal; regĭo, ōnis f - region; os, ossis n - bone. Fourth declension The fourth declension includes masculines which end in –us, and the neuters which end with –u. The Genitive singular form of these nouns ends in – us. E.g.: arcus, us m - arch; cornu, us n – horn. Attention!!! - In the anatomical terminology there are only two neuters of the 4th declension which end in –u: cornu, us n (horn), genu, us n (knee). Attention!!! - In the anatomical terminology there is only a limited number of masculines of the fourth declension. You should remember some of them as follows: aqu(a)eductus, us m aqueduct arcus, us m arch ductus, us m duct meātus, us m tract, passage processus, us m process sinus, us m sinus; hollow textus, us m tissue  32 Fifth declension The fifth declension includes nouns of feminine which end in –es in Nominative singular and in -ei in Genitive singular. E.g.: facĭes, ēi f – surface, face (this is the only noun of the fifth declension you meet in the exercises). Remember the endings of Nominative and Genitive singular of all declensions: Declension I II III IV V Gender f m n m f n m n f Nominative singular a us um different us u es endings er on Genitive singular ae i is us ēi endings VI. STEM OF NOUNS To make a Genitive form from the Nominative form you should determine the stem of the noun. To determine the stem you should detach the ending from the noun: E.g.: Dictionary form Genitive Stem crista, ae f crist - ae crist - collum, i n coll – i coll - facĭes, ēi f faci – ēi faci - pars, partis f part – is part - vomer, ěris m voměr - is voměr - caput, ĭtis n capĭt - is capĭt -  33 VII. EXERCISES 1. Make up the dictionary form of nouns: arcus (arch), bulbus (bulb; any rounded mass), concha (concha), incisūra (slit or notch), sulcus (furrow or groove), cornu (horn), nasus (nose), amnion (amnion), tubercŭlum (tubercle; small rounded swelling), scapŭla (shoulder blade), adĭtus (enter), septum (dividing wall), ganglion (nerve node), collum (neck), porus (opening, pore), fossa (shallow depression or cavity), encephălon (brain), colon (part of large intestine), olecrănon (elbow appendix), muscŭlus (muscle), ramus (branch), genu (knee), nodus (node), pleura (membrane lining chest and covering lungs), lingua (tongue; language), sinus (cavity, sinus), orgănon (organ). 2. Determine the declension of the nouns: facies, ēi f (surface); pars, partis f (part); ala, ae f (wing); magister, tri m (teacher); nervus, i m (nerve); ramus, i m (branch); sphincter, ēris m (sphincter); colon, i n (part of large intestine); plexus, us m (network, chiefly of veins or nerves); forāmen, ĭnis n (opening); ligamentum, i n (ligament); dens, dentis m (tooth); tuber, ěris n (thickend portion of underground stem; rounded swelling); tempus, ŏris n (temple, time); genu, us n (knee); articulatio, ōnis f (joint); cartilāgo, ĭnis f (cartilage); meniscus, i m (meniscus); diaphragma, ătis n (septum between thorax and abdomen, diaphragm); canālis, is m (canal); cervix, īcis f (neck). 3. Pay attention to the word order: spina scapŭlae (spine of shoulder bone); raphe palāti (suture of palate); skelěton membri (skeleton of a limb); ossa cranii (bones of skull); fossa glandŭlae (cavity of gland); vena portae (portal vein); septum nasi (dividing wall of nose); crista tubercŭli (crest of tubercle); processus radii (appendix of radial bone); caput  34 fibŭlae (head of fibular bone); corpus tibiae (body of shin bone); facies acromii (surface of acromion); linea nuchae (line of neck nape); sulcus sinus (furrow of sinus); basis cranii (base of skull); angŭlus mandibŭlae (angle of lower jaw). 4. Determine the gender of the nouns: septum (dividing wall); substantia (substance, material); encephălon (brain); ocŭlus, i (eye); nasus, i (nose); scapŭla (shoulder blade); arcus, us (arch); acromion (acromion); lingua (tongue, language); mandibŭla (lower jaw); processus, us (appendix); cranium (skull); dorsum (back); incisūra (slit or notch); clavicŭla (collar-bone); skelĕton (skeleton); cornu (horn); meātus, us (passage); palātum (palate); huměrus, i (humeral bone); lympha (lymph); cerebrum (brain); concha (concha); maxilla (upper jaw); ductus, us (duct); olecrănon (elbow appendix); tubercŭlum (tubercle); lamĭna (plate); ramus, i (branch); ganglion (nerve node); vertebra (vertebra; each segment of vertebral column); sinus, us (sinus). 5. Pay attention to the word order: collum costae (scapŭlae) (neck of rib (shoulder blade)); corpus fibŭlae (huměri, maxillae, tibiae) (head of fibular bone (humeral bone, upper jaw, shin bone)); incisūra mandibŭlae (scapŭlae) (notch of lower jaw (shoulder blade)); radix dentis (linguae) (root of tooth (tongue)); angŭlus costae (mandibŭlae) (angle of rib (lower jaw)). 6. Translate terms into Latin: muscle of neck; capsule of nerve node; back of saddle; tuber of upper jaw; body of vertebra, head of rib; arch of aorta; notch of lower jaw; base of skull; cavity of nose; passage of nose; neck of shoulder blade; sheath of process; aperture of cohlear canaliculus; crest of the costal head; canaliculus (small canal) of chorda tympani; ligament of the costal tubercle; plate of arch (of vertebra); wing of  35 cock’s crest; aperture of aqueduct of vestibule; vestibule of nose; dividing wall of nose; base of cochlea; small pit of process; small foot of arch of vertebra; surface of the costal tubercle. VIII. VOCABULARY 2nd declension 1. acromĭon, i n shoulder appendix 2. antrum, i n cavity 3. gallus, i m cock 4. ganglĭon, i n nervous node 5. ligamentum, i n ligament 6. lobus, i m lobe 7. nodus, i m node 8. ramus, i m branch 9. skelěton, i n skeleton 10.truncus, i m trunk 11.tympănum, i n tympanum 12.vestibŭlum, i n vestibule 3rd declension 13.basis, is f base 14.canālis, is m canal 15.caput, ĭtis n head 16.corpus, ŏris n body 17.forāmen, ĭnis n opening 18.os, ossis n bone 19.pars, partis f part 20.tuber, ěris n large rounded swelling  36 4th declension 21.arcus, us m arch 22.aquaeductus, us m water duct 23.cornu, us n horn; horn-shaped process 24.ductus, us m duct 25.meātus, us m passage, tract 26.plexus, us m network; chiefly of veins and nerves 27.processus, us m process; appendix 28.sinus, us m hollow or cavity 5th declension 29.facĭes, ēi f face, surface  37 LESSON 4 ADJECTIVE. TWO GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES In this lesson you will: Become familiar with the characteristics of Latin adjectives. Learn morphological categories of Latin adjectives. Learn how to find the stem and the declension of adjectives. Learn how to make grammatical agreement of adjectives with nouns. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Introduction. II. The 1st group of adjectives. III. The 2nd group of adjectives. IV. Adjectives of one form for all genders. V. Agreement of adjectives and nouns. VI. Exercises. VII. Vocabulary I. INTRODUCTION Adjective is a word expressing a quality of a thing: major (large), longus (long), frontālis (frontal). In all Latin terms the position of adjectives is after the noun with which it has grammatical agreement. According to their endings all Latin adjectives can be divided into two groups: the first and the second group. II. THE 1ST GROUP OF ADJECTIVES The adjectives of the 1st group have different forms for every gender:  38 Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative longus longa longum Genitive longi longae longi These adjectives are declined on the pattern of the 1st and 2nd declensions. They have identical Nominative and Genitive forms with nouns: masculine – us (-i), feminine –a (-ae), neuter –um (-i). Their dictionary form consists of three components: 1. adjective in the masculine form; 2. the feminine ending; 3. the neuter ending. E.g.: transversus, a, um (transverse); internus, a, um (internal); profundus, a, um (profound). The stem of the 1st group adjectives is obtained from the Nominative form by removing the gender ending: longus stem: long- transversum stem: transvers- externa stem: extern- The adjectives ending in –er fall also into this adjective group. In the anatomical terminology only some of them are used: Masculine Feminine Neuter Dictionary Form English dexter dextra dextrum dexter, tra, trum right sinister sinistra sinistrum sinister, tra, trum left liber libĕra libĕrum liber, ĕra, ĕrum free ruber rubra rubrum ruber, bra, brum red  39 As for the stem of adjectives with the ending - er in masculine it is obtained from the Nominative form by removing the feminine ending. Dictionary Form Feminine Stem dexter, tra, trum dextra dextr- sinister, tra, trum sinistra sinistr- ruber, bra, brum rubra rubr- liber, ĕra, ĕrum libĕra liber- III. THE 2ND GROUP OF ADJECTIVES Into this group fall adjectives of the 3rd declension. The adjectives of the 2nd group are the adjectives of the frontālis type: Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative frontālis frontālis frontāle Genitive frontālis As indicated in the table the adjectives of this group have identical Nominative masculine and feminine forms ending in –is and the neuter ending –e. The Genitive form is identical for all genders. Their dictionary form consists of two components: 1. the common masculine and feminine Nominative form; 2. the neuter ending –e. E.g.: frontālis, e (frontal); cervicālis, e (cervical). The stem of the 2nd group adjectives is obtained from the Nominative form by removing the gender ending: vertebrālis stem: vertebrāl- temporālis stem: temporāl-  40 IV. THE 2ND GROUP ADJECTIVES OF ONE FORM FOR ALL GENDERS In the anatomical terminology some adjectives of one form for all genders are used. In the dictionary form of such adjectives the Nominative form (common for all genders) is first indicated, and then the Genitive ending with the stem part. Remember these adjectives: simplex, ĭcis simple multĭplex, ĭcis multiple teres, ětis round The stem of such adjectives is obtained from the Genitive form singular by removing the ending. Dictionary form Gen. Singular Stem simplex, ĭcis simplĭcis simplĭc- multĭplex, ĭcis multiplĭcis multiplĭc- teres, ětis terětis terět- V. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS To agree a noun and an adjective means to use them in the same Gender, Number and Case. To agree a noun and an adjective you should: 1. determine gender, number and case of the noun; 2. determine group of the adjective by its dictionary form; 3. agree the adjective and the noun by gender, number and case. For example, you translate from English into Latin the following anatomical terms: mastoid process, vertebral foramen.  41 Process – processus: gender - masculine, singular, Nominative. Mastoid – mastoiděus, a, um: adjective of the 1st group. We agree the adjective mastoiděus in the masculine gender, singular number, Nominative case: processus mastoiděus. Foramen – forāmen: neuter, singular, Nominative. Vertebral – vertebrālis, e: adjective of the 2nd group. We agree the adjective vertebrālis in the neuter gender, singular number, Nominative case: forāmen vertebrāle. VI. EXERCISES 1. Translate the following terms into Latin according to grammatical agreement: pharyngeal network; deep cervical lymphatic node; oval opening; thoracic fascia; transverse palatine raphe; stony branch; internal capsule; middle temporal artery; spinous opening; parietal lobe; superficial vein. 2. Translate the following terms into Latin according to grammatical agreement: articular process of vertebra; bony septum of nose; palatine process of upper jaw; valve of coronary sinus; middle fossa of skull; left lumbar trunk. 3. Translate the following terms into Latin according to grammatical agreement: ligament of vertebral column; fibrous capsule of thyroid gland; furrow (groove) of occipital artery; aperture of frontal sinus. 4. Translate the following terms into Latin according to grammatical agreement: pulmonary surface; lateral ligament; right plate; palatine process; vertebral ganglion (nerve node); costal arch; frontal crest; occipital angle; medial head;  42 sacral canal; superficial vein; simple joint; medial root; costal surface; arched (arch-shaped) crest. 5. Make up grammatical agreement of the following adjectives with the given nouns: 1 sulcus, i m transversus, a, um ligamentum, i n linea, ae f 2 sulcus, i m palatīnus, a, um os, ossis n processus, us m 3 sutūra, ae f frontālis, e angŭlus, i m tuber, ěris n 4 valvŭla, ae f venōsus, a, um plexus, us m sinus, us m 5 processus, us m articulāris, e facies, ēi f tubercŭlum, i n 6 muscŭlus, i m pterygoiděus, a um fossa, ae f 7 arcus, us m zygomatĭcus, a, um os, ossis n 8 facies, ēi f internus, a, um ganglion, i n 6. Make up Genitive forms of the following adjectives: 1. cervicālis, e 7. thoracĭcus, a, um 2. internus, a, um 8. medius, a, um 3. sinister, tra, trum 9. lumbālis, e 4. simplex, ĭcis 10. laterālis, e 5. osseus, a, um 11. temporālis, e 6. lymphatĭcus, a, um 12. vertebrālis, e  43 VII. VOCABULARY 1st group of adjectives 1. coronarĭus, a, um coronary 2. fibrōsus, a, um fibrous 3. internus, a, um internal 4. lymphatĭcus, a, um lymphatic 5. mastoiděus, a, um mammiform 6. medĭus, a, um middle 7. ossěus, a, um bony 8. palatīnus, a, um palatine 9. petrōsus, a, um stony 10. pharyngēus, a, um pharyngeal 11. profundus, a, um deep 12. pterygoiděus, a, um wing-shaped, pterygoid 13. sinister, tra, trum left 14. spinōsus, a, um spinous 15. thoracĭcus, a, um thoracic 16. thyreoideus, a, um thyroid 17. transversus, a, um transverse 18. venōsus, a, um venous 19. zygomatĭcus, a, um zygomatic 2nd group of adjectives 20. arciformis, e arch-shaped 21. articulāris, e articular 22. cervicālis, e cervical 23. ethmoidālis, e sieve-shaped 24. frontālis, e frontal 25. horizontālis, e horizontal  44 26. laterālis, e lateral 27. lumbālis, e lumbar 28. occipitālis, e occipital 29. orbitālis, e orbital 30. ovālis, e oval 31. parietālis, e parietal 32. pulmonālis,e pulmonary 33. sagittālis, e sagital 34. sphenoidālis, e wedge-shaped, sphenoid 35. superficiālis, e superficial 36. temporālis, e temporal 37. vertebrālis, e vertebral  45 LESSON 5 DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES In this lesson you will: Become familiar with the degrees of comparison. Learn how to form the comparative degree. Learn how to form the superlative degree. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Introduction: Degrees of comparison. II. The comparative degree. III. The superlative degree. IV. Exercises. V. Vocabulary I. INTRODUCTION: DEGREES OF COMPARISON The adjectives are gradable. This means that the person or thing referred to can possess more or less of the quality mentioned. The usual way to indicate the amount of a quality in Latin is by adding specific suffixes to the word’s stem. There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives in Latin: Positive degree: The positive degree expresses a quality of thing or person for itself, without comparing to a similar quality of other things or persons. It is the basic form of adjective, by which it is presented in the dictionaries: longus, a, um; frontālis, e. Comparative degree. Superlative degree.  46 II. THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE The comparative degree expresses a higher quality of thing or person as compared with the same quality of other things or persons. It is formed by adding the suffixes –ĭor for masculine & feminine and –ĭus for neuter to the stem of adjectives (obtained from the genitive form without its ending). The dictionary form of the adjectives has two components: 1. Nominative singular masculine & feminine form with the suffix –ĭor; 2. Suffix –ĭus of the Nominative singular neuter form. E.g.: anterĭor, ĭus You should remember the adjectives in comparitive degree used in the anatomical terminology: Masculine & Dictionary Neuter Genitive form English feminine form anterior anterius anteriōris anterior anterior, ius posterior posterius posteriōris posterior posterior, ius upper, superior superius superiōris superior, ius superior inferior inferius inferiōris lower, inferior inferior, ius great, greater, major majus majōris major, jus major small, lesser, minor minus minōris minor, us minor Examples of different English translations of the comparative degree: 1) Lat. Tubercŭlum majus (humĕri) - Eng. Greater tubercle of humeri 2) Lat. Forāmen occipitāle magnum - Eng. Great occipital foramen 3) Lat. Nervus petrōsus major - Eng. Greater petrosal nerve 4) Lat. Nervus occipitālis major - Eng. Greater occipital nerve 5) Lat. Nervus auriculāris magnus - Eng. Great auricular nerve  47 The stem of the adjectives in the comparative degree coincides with the Nominative masculine & feminine form terminated by –ior. The comparative degree is declined on the pattern of the 3rd declension. The Genitive singular form in the comparative degree is formed by adding the ending –is to the stem. E.g.: stem - superior + Genitive ending of the 3rd declension –is = superiōris for masculine & feminine & neuter. The adjectives in the comparative degree are placed on the last position: E.g.: nervus cutaněus brachĭi laterālis inferĭor – inferior lateral cutaneous nerve of the arm III. THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE The superlative degree expresses a highest quality of thing or person as compared with the same quality of other things or persons. You should remember the adjectives in superlative degree used in the anatomical terminology: Latissĭmus, a, um broadest Longissĭmus, a, um longest Maxĭmus, a, um greatest Minĭmus, a, um least Suprēmus, a, um supreme The dictionary form of the adjectives in the superlative degree coincides with the dictionary form of the 1st group adjectives and consists of three components: 1. adjective in the masculine form; 2. the feminine ending;  48 3. the neuter ending. The superlative degree is declined on the pattern of the 1st and 2nd declensions, i.e. the adjectives have the masculine & neuter genitive ending –i, and the feminine genitive ending –ae. VI. EXERCISES 1. Make up the dictionary form of the adjectives: brevior (shorter); longior (longer); minor (small, minor); major (great, greater, major); anterior (anterior); posterior (posterior); superior (upper, superior); inferior (lower, inferior); simplicior (simpler). 2. Translate into Latin and make up grammatical agreement of the following nouns: lower (sinus, part, spine); small (tubercle, opening, fossa); anterior (sulcus, tubercle, crest, opening, ligament); posterior (arch, surface, ligament); higher (process, opening, slit); great (sulcus, wing, head); small and great (horn). 3. Make up Genitive singular forms, find the stem: major, jus (great, major); albior, ius (white); minor, us (small, minor); latior, ius (wider); inferior, ius (lower); simplicior, ius (simpler); superior, ius (upper, superior); longior, ius (longer); brevior, ius (shorter); posterior, ius (posterior); anterior, ius (anterior). 4. Make up Genitive singular forms: tubercŭlum obturatorium posterius (posterior obturative tubercle); processus superior (superior process); incisūra ischiadĭca major (greater ischiadic slit); forāmen superius (superior opening); ramus superior (superior branch); arcus posterior (posterior arch); incisūra superior (superior slit); labium inferius (lower lip); facies posterior (posterior surface); cornu majus et minus (small and great  49 horn); caput majus (greater head); ligamentum posterius (posterior ligament); sulcus major (greater sulcus), ala major (greater wing). 5. Make up grammatical agreement of following adjectives with nouns: tubercŭlum thyr(e)oidě... superi... (superior thyroid tubercle); fissūra orbitāl... inferi... (lower orbital fissure); linea glutē... anteri... (anterior gluteal line); forāmen ethmoidāl... anter... (anterior ethmoidal opening); spīna tympanĭc... min... (small tympanic spine); processus articulār... inferi... (lower articular process); plexus hypogastrĭc.. superi... (superior hypogastric network); ligamentum longitudināl... anteri... (anterior longitudinal ligament). 6. Translate into Latin: a) small tubercle; small horn; small pelvis b) anterior arch; anterior plate; anterior leg c) superior angle; superior surface; superior lip 7. Make up Genitive singular forms: facies anterior (anterior surface); angŭlus inferior (lower angle); cornu majus (greater horn); ganglion superius (superior ganglion (nerve node)); pelvis minor (small pelvis); tubercŭlum majus (greater tubercle); arcus posterior (posterior arch); radix anterior (anterior root). 8. Determine the case of each word and the part of speech: facies anterior partis petrōsae; linea temporālis superior; fovea articulāris processus articulāris superiōris; ala minor ossis sphenoidālis; arcus dentālis inferior; processus articulāris superior vertebrae lumbālis; ramus dexter venae portae; muscŭlus palpebrae superiōris; crista tubercŭli majōris; sulcus nervi petrōsi majōris; caput superius muscŭli pterygoiděi laterālis; tubercŭlum mediāle  50 processus posteriōris tali; pars laterālis ossis occipitālis; hiātus canālis nervi petrōsi minōris; nervus cutaněus brachii laterālis inferior; processus maxillāris conchae nasālis inferiōris; ligamentum longitudināle anterius columnae vertebrālis. 9. Translate into Latin using superlative degree: gluteus maximus muscle; the longest muscle of neck; superior nuchal line; longissimus chest muscle; supreme nasal concha; the widest back muscle bursa ;gluteus minimus muscle; the widest back muscle; scalenus minimus muscle; little (the fifth) finger. VII. VOCABULARY 1. brevis, e short 2. bulbus, i m bulb 3. bursa, ae f pouch, sac 4. cavus, a, um caval, hollow 5. cervix, īcis f neck 6. cingŭlum, i n girdle 7. cutaněus, a, um cutaneous 8. dexter, tra, trum right 9. digĭtus, i m finger; toe 10. glutaeus, a, um pertaining to buttocks 11. hyoiděus, a, um sublingual, hypoglossal 12. jugulāris, e jugular 13. longitudinālis, e longitudinal, lengthwise 14. mediālis, e medial 15. nasālis , e nasal 16. nervus, i m nerve 17. ostĭum, i n mouth, aperture, opening 18. palpěbra, ae f eyelid 19. scalēnus, a, um stairs-shaped  51 20. talus, i m ankle bone, talus 21. tendo, ĭnis m tendon 22. thorax, ācis m chest 23. tibiālis, e tibial Positive degree of comparison 24. magnus, a, um large, great 25. parvus, a, um little, small Comparative degree 26. anterĭor, ĭus anterior, front 27. inferĭor, ĭus lower 28. major, us large 29. minor, us small 30. posterĭor, ĭus back 31. superĭor, ĭus higher, upper Superlative degree 32. latissĭmus, a, um widest 33. longissĭmus, a, um longest 34. maxĭmus, a, um largest 35. minĭmus, a, um smallest 36. suprēmus, a, um highest  52 LESSON 6 LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. MASCULINE GENDER In this lesson you will: Become familiar with the Latin third declension nouns. Learn how to find the stem of the third declension nouns. Learn the endings of the masculine third declension nouns. Become familiar with the structure of muscles names. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Particularities of the third declension. II. Stem of Latin third declension nouns. III. Endings of Latin third declension nouns. IV. Exceptions to the rule of the masculine third declension nouns endings. V. Latin muscle names. VI. Exercises. VII. Vocabulary I. PARTICULARITIES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION The third declension includes nouns of all the three genders which have different endings in Nominative singular and –is in Genitive singular. Parisyllaba and imparisyllaba third declension nouns The Latin nouns of the 3rd declension can be divided into parisyllaba and imparisyllaba. The first group includes a few feminine nouns that have equal number of syllables in Nominative singular and Genitive singular, such as:  53 auris, is f – ear cutis, is f – skin The nouns that have one more syllable in Genitive singular than in Nominative singular are called imparisyllaba, cf. the following examples: corpus, ŏris n – body caput, ĭtis n – head II. STEM OF LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS The stem determination of Latin third declension nouns is of great practical significance because the stem gives the clue to the formation of most of the other forms, for example of plural forms. The stem of nouns of the 3rd declension is determined by the Genitive singular form. The stem of nouns of the 3rd declension is obtained from the Genitive singular form by dropping the ending –is. E.g.: forāmen, ĭnis n → foramĭn-is opening caput, ĭtis n → capĭt-is head parĭes, ētis m → pariēt-is wall III. ENDINGS OF LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS Most nouns ending by –os, -or, -o, -er, -ex, -es (imparisyllaba) are masculine, cf.: Endings Examples Nominative Genitive (with a part of the stem) 1. - os - ōris flos, floris m - flower constrictor, constrictōris m – 2. - or - ōris constrictor  54 - ōnis pulmo, pulmōnis m - lung 3. -o - ĭnis homo, homĭnis m – man - ris venter, ventris m – belly of a muscle 4. - er - ēris trochanter, trochantēris m - trochanter 5. - ex - ĭcis cortex, cortĭcis m - cortex - ědis pes, pedis m - foot 6. - es - ētis parĭes, pariētis m - wall IV. EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF THE MASCULINE THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS ENDINGS The following nouns having masculine endings are feminine: a. arbor, ōris f – tree (arbor vitae cerebelli – medullary body of vermis) b. gaster, tris f (Greek) - stomach; c. mater, tris f – cerebral coat pia mater - pia mater of brain dura mater - dura mater of brain Attention!!! - In these terms the noun «mater» follows an adjective. The following nouns having masculine endings are neuter: a. cor, cordis n - heart; b. os, ossis n - bone; c. os, oris n - mouth; d. tuber, ĕris n - tuber. V. LATIN MUSCLE NAMES The Latin muscle names are composed of two elements: 1) the first element is the noun «muscle» - «muscŭlus»;  55 2) the second element is a masculine noun ending in –or (-ōris) or –er (- ēris). E.g.: muscŭlus flexor – flexor muscle In the Latin Anatomical Nomenclature all the muscle names are masculine third declension nouns ending in: - or, ōris m (e.g.: rotātor, ōris m); - er, ēris m (e.g.: massēter, ēris m). The Latin muscle names are usually translated into English without a word “muscle”, cf.: muscŭlus massēter - chewer; muscŭlus levātor – elevator etc. Most of the muscle names are not translated but transliterated, i.e. reproduced with the Latin letters: E.g.: muscŭlus pronātor – pronator. Word order in the Latin muscle names: 1) word muscŭlus in Nominative; 2) name of the muscle – a masculine noun in Nominative ending in –or (-ōris) or –er (-ēris). 3) any other noun is in Genitive; 4) adjectives are placed at the end of the term. E.g.: 1 2 3 Final position Muscŭlus constrictor pharyngis medius Muscŭlus tensor fasciae latae  56 VI. EXERCISES 1. Make up grammatical agreement of the adjectives with the given nouns: 1) tuber (frontālis, e; parietālis, e; major, jus; minor, us) 2) pulmo (dexter, tra, trum; sinister, tra, trum) 3) mater (pius, a, um; durus, a, um) 4) venter (posterior, ius; frontālis, e) 5) os (nasālis, e; hyoiděus, a, um; frontālis, e; parietālis, e) 6) paries (laterālis, e; jugulāris, e; anterior, ius; tympanĭcus, a, um) 2. Translate into Latin: 1) tensor muscle of tympanic membrane 2) inferior constrictor muscle of pharynx 3) elevator muscle of scapula 4) rotator muscle of neck 5) elevator muscle of thyroid gland 6) depressor muscle of lower lip 3. Translate into Latin: cortex of cerebellum, cortex of brain, cortex of lymphatic node, small (great) trochanter, heart apex, left (right) lung, sublingual bone, first chamber of the heart (atrium), dura mater of brain, frontal tuber, sulcus of vomer, medial surface of lung, floor of tympanic cavity, wedge-shaped bone, membranous wall of trachea, frontal wall of stomach, small horn of sublingual bone, zygomatic process of temporal bone, ethmoidal sulcus of nasal bone, notch of heart apex.  57 VII. VOCABULARY 1. apex, ĭcis m apex, top, tip 2. atrĭum, i n first chamber of the heart (atrium) 3. cardiăcus, a, um cardiac 4. cerebellum, i n cerebellum 5. cerěbrum, i n brain 6. cochleāris, e cochlear 7. cor, cordis n heart 8. cortex, ĭcis m cortex 9. durus, a, um hard, solid 10. encephălon, i n brain 11. fissūra, ae f fissure, narrow slit 12. gaster, tris f stomach 13. labĭum, i n lip 14. mater, tris f membrane of brain or spinal cord 15. membrāna, ae f membrane 16. membranacěus, a, um membranous 17. os, oris n mouth 18. parietālis, e parietal 19. parĭes, ētis m wall 20. pharynx, ýngis m pharynx soft 21. pius, a, um lung 22. pulmo, ōnis m pulmonary 23. pulmonālis, e spinous 24. spinōsus, a, um tympanic 25. tympanĭcus, a, um trochanter 26. trochanter, ēris m vomer 27. vomer, ěris m  58 Names of muscles: 1. Muscŭlus constrictor constrictor (muscle) 2. Muscŭlus depressor depressor (muscle) 3. Muscŭlus levātor elevator (muscle) 4. Muscŭlus rotātor rotator (muscle) 5. Muscŭlus tensor tensor (muscle)  59 LESSON 7 LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. FEMININE GENDER In this lesson you will: Learn the endings of the feminine third declension nouns. Learn exceptions to the rule of the feminine third declension nouns endings. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Endings of feminine third declension nouns. II. Exceptions to the rule of the feminine third declension nouns endings. III. Exercises. IV. Vocabulary I. ENDINGS OF FEMININE THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS Most nouns ending by -io, -as, -is, -s, -x (imparisyllaba), -is (parisyllaba) are feminine, cf.: Endings Examples Nominative Genitive (with a part of the stem) 1. - as - ātis cavĭtas, cavitātis f - cavity 2. - is - ĭdis pyrămis, pyramĭdis f - pyramid (imparisyllaba) - is - is auris, auris f – ear 3. (parisyllaba) 4. -s - tis pars, partis f - part -x - cis radix, radīcis f – root 5. - gis meninx, meningis f - meninx -o - ĭnis cartilāgo, cartilagĭnis f – cartilage 6. - io - ōnis articulatĭo, articulatiōnis f – joint  60 II. EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF THE FEMININE THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS ENDINGS The following nouns having feminine endings are masculine (according to 6 endings in the foregoing table): 1 atlas, ntis m atlas 2 pulvis, ěris m powder sanguis, ĭnis m blood 3 axis, is m axis canālis, is m canal unguis, is m nail 4 dens, dentis m tooth 5 fornix, ĭcis m arch larynx, ngis m larynx pharynx, ngis m pharynx coccyx, ýgis m tailbone thorax, ācis m chest 6 tendo, ĭnis m sinew margo, ĭnis m edge The following nouns having feminine endings are neuter: 1. pancrĕas, ătis n - pancreas 2. vas, vasis n - vessel III. EXERCISES 1. Translate into English: cavĭtas medullāris, basis cranii externa, cartilāgo thyroiděa, cartilāgo alāris major, margo inferior pulmōnis sinistri, auris externa, bifurcatio trachēae, basis pyramĭdis renālis, margo utěri dexter, axis bulbi externus, pancreas accessorium,  61 pars liběra gingīvae, cartilāgo septi nasi, cavĭtas oris propria, labyrinthus ossěus auris internae, terminatio nervi cutis, vas lymphatĭcum superficiāle, canālis palatīnus major, caput pancreătis, regio thorācis posterior, sanguis venōsus et arteriōsus. 2. Make up grammatical agreement of adjectives with the given nouns : 1) cavĭtas (pleurālis, e; articulāris, e; medullāris, e) 2) margo (anterior, ius; frontālis, e ; dexter, tra, trum) 3) auris (internus, a, um ; externus, a, um ; medius, a, um) 4) cartilāgo (costālis, e; alāris, e; articulāris, e; major, jus) 5) pars (ossěus, a, um; laterālis, e; anterior, ius; dexter, tra, trum) 6) vas (lymphatĭcus, a, um; sanguiněus, a, um; capillāris, e) 3. Translate into Latin: dura mater of brain, pyloric canal, fornix of stomach, canal of great stony nerve, angle of stomach, fornix of pharynx, ring-shaped part of fibrous vagina, sholder joint, capsule of pancreas, tympanic cavity of middle ear, greater palatine canal, cartilage of nasal septum, inferior constrictor of pharynx. V. VOCABULARY 1. alāris, e alar 2. anulāris, e ring-shaped 3. abor, ōris f abor 4. arteriōsus, a, um arterial 5. articulatĭo, ōnis f joint 6. auris, is f ear 7. bifurcatĭo, ōnis f bifurcation 8. capillāris, e capillary 9. carotĭcus, a, um carotid  62 10. cartilāgo, ĭnis f cartilage 11. cavĭtas, ātis f cavity 12. coccyx, ýgis m coccyx, coccygeal bone 13. composĭtus, a, um complex 14. costālis, e costal 15. cutis, is f skin 16. dens, dentis m tooth dens canīnus canine, cuspid tooth dens incisīvus incisor tooth dens molāris molar tooth dens premolāris premolar tooth dens decidŭus milk tooth dens sapientĭae (dens wisdom tooth serotĭnus) 17. fornix, ĭcis m fornix, arc 18. iliăcus, a, um iliac 19. incisīvus, a, um incisive, cutting, sharp 20. labyrinthus, i m labyrinth 21. mandibulāris, e mandibular 22. masseterĭcus, a, um masticatory, chewing 23. molāris, e molar 24. optĭcus, a, um optic, visual 25. pancrěas, ătis n pancreas 26. pelvis, is f pelvis 27. pleurālis, e pleural 28. pylorĭcus, a, um pyloric 29. regĭo, ōnis f region 30. sanguiněus, a, um blood, sanguiferous 31. sanguis, ĭnis m blood  63 32. simplex, ĭcis simple 33. sternālis, e sternal 34. tuberosĭtas, ātis f tuberosity 35. vas, vasis n vessel 36. vita, ae f life  64 LESSON 8 LATIN THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS. NEUTER GENDER In this lesson you will: Learn the endings of the neuter third declension nouns. Learn exceptions to the rule of the neuter third declension nouns endings. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Endings of neuter third declension nouns. II. Exceptions to the rule of the neuter third declension nouns endings. III. Exercises. IV. Vocabulary I. ENDINGS OF NEUTER THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS Most nouns ending by –ar, -e, -en, -ma, -ur, -us are neuter, cf.: Endings Examples Nominative Genitive (with a part of the stem) 1. - ar - ătis hepar, hepătis n - liver 2. -e - tis rete, retis n - network 3. - en - ĭnis abdōmen, abdomĭnis n - abdomen 4. - ma - ătis zygōma, zygomătis n – cheek-bone 5. - ur - ŏris femur, femŏris n - thigh - us - ěris glomus, gloměris n - glome 6. - ŏris pectus, pectŏris n – chest - uris crus, cruris n - shank 7. - ut - ĭtis caput, capĭtis n – head  65 II. EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF THE NEUTER THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS ENDINGS The following nouns having neuter endings are masculine: 1. lien, liēnis m - spleen 2. ren, renis m – kidney The neuter third declension nouns ending in –ma should be distinguished from feminine first declension nouns ending in –a: E.g.: diaphragma, ătis n - diaphragm; chiasma, ătis n - chiasm; stroma, ătis n - stroma; systēma, ătis n - system; zygōma, ătis n – cheek-bone. but squama, ae f - scales; struma, ae f – crop. III. EXERCISES 1. Make up grammatical agreement of the adjectives with the given nouns: 1) forāmen (occipitālis,e; mentālis, e; incisīvus, a, um; mastoiděus, a, um; major, jus) 2) systēma (centrālis, e; nervōsus, a, um; lymphatĭcus, a, um) 3) caput (longus, a, um; transversus, a, um; laterālis, e; brevis, e) 4) ren (dexter, tra, trum; mobĭlis, e; sinister, tra, trum; lobātus, a, um) 5) crus (sinister, tra, trum; laterālis, e; brevis, e; simplex, ĭcis; anterior, ius) 6) hepar (mobĭlis, e; lobātus, a, um; major, jus)  66 2. Translate into Latin: superficial lymphatic vessel, posterior nucleus of trapezoid body, internal carotid artery, base of heart, apex of heart, root of lung, cavity of uterus, renal pelvis, thyroid cartilage, pylorus part, left lobe of lung, ventricle of larynx, superior constrictor of larynx, capsule of pancreas, external oblique muscle of stomach, mucous membrane of mouth, cardiac impression of lung, body of mammary gland, spinal muscle of neck, the longest muscle of head, canal of neck of uterus, frontal region of face, external base of skull, wing of vomer, membranous wall of trachea. V. VOCABULARY 1. abdōmen, ĭnis n abdomen 2. accessorĭus, a, um additional 3. aortĭcus, a, um aortic, aortal 4. appendix, īcis f process, appendix 5. cavernōsus, a, um cavernous 6. centrālis, e central 7. coccygēus, a, um coccygeal 8. crus, cruris n leg, crus 9. glomus, ěris n glome, glomus 10.hepar, ătis n liver 11.impressio, ōnis f impression 12.lien, ēnis m spleen 13.lobātus, a, um lobulose, lobulous, lobulated 14.longus, a, um long 15.mamma, ae f mammary gland 16.mentālis, e mental 17.mobĭlis, e mobile  67 18.nervōsus, a, um nervous 19.oblīquus, a, um oblique 20.radix, īcis f root, radix 21.ren, renis m kidney 22.renālis, e renal 23.rotundus, a, um round 24.stroma, ătis n stroma 25.synchondrōsis, is f synchondrosis 26.systēma, ătis n system 27.tegmen, ĭnis n roof 28.thymus, i m thymus  68 LESSON 9 NOMINATIVE PLURAL OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES In this lesson you will: Learn how to form the plural forms of nouns in the anatomical terminology. Learn how to form the plural forms of adjectives in the anatomical terminology. Learn abbreviations used in the anatomical terminology. This lesson is divided into the following sections: I. Nouns and adjectives endings in Nominative plural. II. Formation of Nominative plural forms. III. Abbreviations used in the anatomical terminology. IV. Exercises. V. Vocabulary I. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES ENDINGS IN NOMINATIVE PLURAL The Latin nouns have Nominative plural endings as follows: Declension 1 2 3 4 5 Gender f m n m, f n m n f Endings -ae -i -a -es -a -us -ŭa -es (-ĭa) Attention!!! – Remember one neuter noun of the 3rd declension which has the Nominative plural ending -ia: rete – retia (network – networks). Other neuter nouns of the 3rd declension, which have the Nominative plural ending –ia, are not used in the anatomical terminology.  69 The Latin adjectives have Nominative plural endings as follows: Adjectives of the 1st Adjectives of the 2nd Adjectives