Basics of Medical Terminology 2023 PDF

Basics of Medical Terminology (Latin and Greek origins) COMPILED BY LÁSZLO RE PÁS DEBRECEN 2023 1  Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to medical terminology...............................................4 Chapter 2 Anatom...

Basics of Medical Terminology (Latin and Greek origins) COMPILED BY LÁSZLO RE PÁS DEBRECEN 2023 1  Contents Chapter 1 Introduction to medical terminology...............................................4 Chapter 2 Anatomical positions, planes and directions.................................13 Chapter 3 Parts of the body...........................................................................23 Grammar 1 Basic elements of Latin grammar................................................31 Chapter 5 Regions of the human body..........................................................35 Grammar 2 Latin adjectives and grammatical concord.................................38 Grammar 3 Formation of adjectives.............................................................40 Revision Test of Chapters 1-5........................................................................42 Chapter 6 The skeletal system.......................................................................44 Grammar 4 - Singular and Plural forms..........................................................56 Chapter 7 Connections of bones....................................................................58 Chapter 8 The muscular system.....................................................................67 Chapter 9 Greek roots...................................................................................77 Revision Test of Chapters 6-9........................................................................83 Appendix.......................................................................................................85 References....................................................................................................94 Credits of Pictures.........................................................................................94 2 3 Chapter 1 Introduction to medical terminology The main sources of medical terminology Although medical terms have been drawn from many languages, a large majority are from Greek and Latin. Terms of Greek origin occur mainly in clinical terminology (e.g. cardiology, nephropathia, gastritis), Latin terms make up the majority of anatomical terminology (Nomina Anatomica) (e.g. cor, ren, ventriculus). There are, however, terms of different origin, taken from French (e.g. massage, passage, plaque, pipette, bougie), or from Italian (e.g. varicella, belladonna, influenza). Greek in medical terminology It is estimated that about three-fourths of medical terminology is of Greek origin. The main reason for this is that the Greeks were the founders of rational medicine in the golden age of Greek civilization in the 5th Century B.C. The Hippocratic School and, later on, Galen (the Greek from Asia Minor who lived in Rome in the 2nd century A.D.) formulated the theories which dominated medicine up to the beginning of the 18th Century. The Hippocratics were the first to describe diseases based on observation, and the names given by them to many conditions are still used today, for example, arthritis, nephritis, pleuritis (pleurisy). A second reason for the large number of Greek medical terms is that the Fig. 1.1 Greek language is quite suitable for the building of Hippocrates of Cos 5th c. B.C. compound words. When new terms were needed, with the rapid expansion of medical science during the last centuries, Greek words or Latin words with Greek endings were used to express the new ideas, conditions, or instruments. The new words follow the older models so closely that it is impossible to distinguish the two by their forms. Such recent words as appendicitis, creatinine, cystoscope, epinephrine, streptococcus, and many others do not appear different from the classical terms. The fact is that about one-half of our medical terminology is less than a century old. A third reason for using the classical roots is that they form an Fig. 1.2 international language. Galen of Pergamon 2nd c. A.D. Latin in medical terminology Greek medicine migrated to Rome at an early date, and many Latin terms crept into its terminology. Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th century, so all medical texts were written in Latin. Under the influence of the great anatomical work of Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica (1543), the terminology of anatomy is almost exclusively Latin. Fig. 1.3 Andreas Vesalius A.D. 1514-1564 4 Language features of medical terms Greek is more productive in the field of composition of multi-element terms, while Latin is more productive in the field of inflected word structures, and the two languages were therefore able to complement each other, and later on it became possible to create scientific terms with entirely new meanings by using elements from both languages. (E.g. kardia > peri-cardi-um, myo-cardi-um, endo- cardi-um, cardi-o-vascul-aris, cardi-o-logia, cardi-o-myo-pathia etc.; tendo, tendere, tetendi, tensum/tentum > tens-io, tens-or, ex-tens-io, ex-tens-or, in-tens-ivus, in-tens-itas, ex-tens-ivus etc.) These terms are now used not only in Latin contexts, and not only in disciplines that existed in the Middle Ages, but also in completely new ones, such as genetics, immunology. There are areas where the terms are multi-word, and here, of course, the grammatical construction follows the rules of Latin language. The main types of medical terms 1. The main concepts of anatomical nomenclature a. in terms of their origin, they are mainly i. of Latin origin e.g. ren (kidney), auris (ear), musculus (muscle) ii. but also of Greek origin: e.g. ganglion (group of nerve cells), olecranon (elbow tip); b. in terms of their structure, they may be i. single-worded simple or complex termse.g. humerus (arm bone), neurocranium (cerebral part of skull) ii. multi-worded, i.e. they often occur together with 1. an adjective or adjectives e.g. tibia dextra (right tibia), os frontale (frontal bone) musculus pectoralis major (large pectoral muscle), indicating the location or other quality of the structure, etc.; 2. or a possessive noun, e.g. caput humeri (head of the humerus), basis cranii (base of the skull), sulcus tendinis musculi (‘groove of the tendon of muscle’); indicating the part of the bone or organ concerned; 3. or both adjective and possessive noun, e.g. musculus rectus femoris (‘straight muscle of the thigh’), arteria circumflexa scapulae ('circumflex artery of the scapula'). 2. Clinical terms a. in terms of origin, largely i. words or phrases of Greek origin, with/without prefixes and suffixes e.g. icterus (jaundice), dyspnoea ('shortness of breath') ii. to a lesser extent, they are made up of Latin words e.g. decubitus (pressure sore), febris (fever) b. in terms of their structure they may be i. single-worded and simple e.g. rabies (rabies) ii. single-worded and complex (prefix + Greek word element + suffix) e.g. hyper- ton-ia (hypertension, ‘high blood pressure’), nephr-itis ('kidney inflammation') iii. multi-worded, including a modifier, i.e. 1. an adjective phrase e.g. hepatitis acuta (acute inflammation of the liver) nephropathia diabetica (diabetic kidney disease) 2. a possessive phrase e.g. ulcus cruris (leg ulcer). 5 Medical terminology and Latin grammar In the light of the above, the following knowledge of Latin grammar is necessary for a linguistic understanding and accurate use of medical terminology: 1. Verbs Since, with the exception of a few verbs in the imperative form in medical prescriptions, the medical student will not encounter many conjugated verbs, so knowledge of the system of verb conjugation is not essential, but there are a number of nouns, adjectives and participles that are formed from basic verbs and their preverbal forms, and it is important to know them. a. the lexical form of the main verbs (e.g. duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, to lead) b. The participles (ab-duc-ens, abducting; duct-us 3 led), nouns (duct-us, a duct; ad-duct- io, moving towards) ab-duct-or (a muscle) abducting) and adjectives formed from verbs. 2. Nouns Since nouns occur mainly on their own or as part of singular and plural adjectival structures or possessive structures, it is not important to know the full conjugation of the five cases, but a. the dictionary form of nouns (singular subject (Nominativus) and possessive (Genitivus) case, grammatical gender; Singularis Nominativus, Sing. Genitivus, genus), (e.g. vena, venae f) b. the noun Sing. Gen. case form and the word stem (e.g. femur, femor|is n --> femor-), c. distinguishing the five noun inflectional classes or declensions (declinatio), d. the use of the singular and plural Nominative case (Nominativus) and possessive case (Genitivus) for nouns and adjectives, e. furthermore, in prepositional structures, it is important to know the object case (Accusativus) and the Ablative case (Ablativus), e.g. post mortem ‘after death’, in vitro ‘in the lab’. 3. Adjectives and participles a. dictionary form, endings b. agreement of their endings with the indicated noun in gender, number, case c. their conjugation endings in singular and plural Nominative and Genitive cases, and in the diagnostic terms Accusative and Ablative cases. 4. Numerals Since the use of Latin numerals is essential in prescription and since numerals are also frequently used in anatomy, it is necessary to a. the use of cardinal and ordinal numbers, and b. knowledge of Roman numerals up to 2000. 5. Prepositions Although prepositional phrases tend to occur in pathological and clinical diagnoses, they are often used as verbal prefixes (praeverbium) or other word prefixes (praefixum), and knowledge of their meaning is essential. 6 Latin pronunciation rules We pronounce Latin anatomical and medical terms here in Hungary (similarly to that in other countries of Central and Eastern Europe) in the so called Erasmian or humanistic Latin pronunciation. It is different from both the classical or restituted and the ecclesiastical pronunciation of Latin, but it is also different from the way anatomical and medical terms of Latin origin are pronunced in English. The following table illustrates the rules of pronunciation of Latin words in Hungary and some other countries of Middle and Eastern Europe: Originally the Latin alphabet included 21 letters: A B C D E F G H I L M N O P Q R S T U VX + K Y Z (for the transcription of Greek loan words) + J (from „I” when it is pronounced [y], since the 16th c.) Vowels: a short or long [a] brachium (arm), corpus humānum (human body) e short or long [e] cervix (neck), vēna (vein) i short or long [i] or tībia (shin bone) st as a 1 letter before a vowel maior / major (major, larger) between vowels [y] o short or long [o] os frontale (frontal bone) per ōs (by the mouth) u short or long [u] cubitus (elbow), lūmen (opening) in gu, qu + vowel [gw], [qw] lingua (tongue), aqua (water) y [i] epicondylus (epicondyle) Diphthongs (two vowel letters with one vowel sound) ae long [e] corpus claviculae (body of clavicle) oe [ö, ő] oedema (swelling) But “aē / aë” and “oē / oë”: pronounced with two spearate vowels as [aē] and [oē] e.g. aērophagia; dyspnoë Consonants c [tz] before e, i, y, ae, oe (front vowels) cervix, incisura, cysta, Caesar, coecum (neck, notch, cyst, Caesar, blind) [k] before a, o, u (back vowels)and cons. caput, collum, cubitus, crista, lac (head, neck, elbow, crest, milk) cc [ktz] before e, i, y, ae, oe mucosa buccae (mucous membrane of cheek) [kk] before a, o, u, cons. bucca, saccus (cheek, sac) g [g] margo, marginis (margin) s [s] sulcus (narrow depression) [z] between vowels, or a vowel and l/m/n/r incisura, tarsus ss [ss] fissura, musculus masseter Letter combinations ti [tzi] before vowels substantia (substance, matter) [ti] before consonants and after s/t/x tibia, combustio, suggestio ch [kh/k] brachium (upper arm) ph [f] phalanx rh [r] rhinitis (nasal inflammation) th [t] thorax (chest) 7 Reading practice clavicula, claviculae, femininum (f) abdomen, cavum abdominis (abdominal cavity) corpus claviculae (the body of clavicle) articulatio sphaeroidea (ball and socket joint) musculus, musculi masculinum encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) caput musculi (the head of a muscle) phleborrhagia (venous bleeding) caput, capitis, neutrum (n) nephropathia diabetica (diabetic nephropathia) musculus capitis (a muscle of the head) phalanx, phalangis f (bone of finger) coccyx, coccygis f (cuckoo) phalanges manus (bones of handfingers) os coccygis (tailbone) trochanter major (greater trochanter of the femur) vaccina, siccus (dry), os frontale (frontal bone), occiput, occipitis n (the back of the head) os zygomaticum (zygomatic bone) locus, loci m. (place) ossa metacarpi (metacarpal bones); sulcus, sulci, m. ossicula auditus (auditory ossicles); tussis sicca (dry cough) eupnoē, dyspnoē (normal breathing, difficulty musculus occipitalis (occipital muscle) breathing), anaestheticum locale (local anaesthetic) foetor ex ore (bad breath), brachium, brachii, n. (upper arm) Aloē vera, combustio, foetus, suggestio, musculus biceps brachii (two-headed muscle of the sanguis (blood), quinque (5), upper arm) foramen caecum (cul-de-sac), saccus lacrimalis (lacrimal sac) isthmus faucium (narrow passage of throat); circulus vitiosus (vicious circle) aetiologia (study of the cause); circulatio sanguinis (blood circulation) substantia spongiosa (spongy bone); musculus flexor pollicis (flexor m. of the thumb) substantia compacta (compact bone); oesophagus, oesophagi, m. (gullet) locus minoris resistentiae (place of smaller carcinoma oesophagi (oesophageal cancer) resistance); pulmo, pulmonis m (lung) musculus sternocleidomastoideus oedema pulmonis (pulmonary oedema) (sternocleidomastoid muscle) musculus thoracicus (thoracic muscle) vagina tendinis musculi flexoris pollicis longi vertebra thoracica (thoracic vertebra) (the tendon sheath of long flexor muscle of thumb) vertebrae thoracicae (thoracic vertebrae) 2. Classify words according to their pronunciation. cavitas, coccygis, saccus, rectum, caecum, oculus, occiput, buccae, thoracis, [tz] [k] [ktz] [kk] rotatio, intestinum, exhaustio, capitis [ti] [tzi] 8 The dictionary form of nouns musculus, musculi, m = muscle musculus musculi m ↓ ↓ ↓ Singular Subject case Singular Possessive case masculine gender Singularis Nominativus Singularis Genitivus (grammatical gender) (Sing.Nom.) (Sing.Gen.) ’muscle’ ’... of the muscle’ masculine Nemek: m masculinum Further examples: f  femininum vena venae f Sing. Nom. Sing. Gen. femininum n neutrum ’vein’ ’... of the vein’ feminine dorsum dorsi n Sing. Nom. Sing. Gen. neutrum ’back’ ’...of the back’ neuter gender In the dictionary form of a noun, the possessive case is often abbreviated: musculus, i m musculus, musculi m (masculinum) vena, ae f vena, venae f (femininum) dorsum, i n dorsum, dorsi n (neutrum) Since Latin is an inflected language, and not an agglutinating language like Hungarian, it does not actually inflect words like Hungarian, i.e. it does not "glue" the other case endings to the subject form, but "inflects" them, i.e. it changes the ending of the word, and therefore the possessive case ending is not attached to the ending of the subject form, but it replaces it. So musculus, i m musculus, musculi (not musculusi) m. 3. Complete the dictionary form of nouns based on the abbreviation. In the following examples, fill in the missing parts of the dictionary form based on the subject (Nominative) case. clavicula, ae f clavicula, claviculae f = clavicle incisura, ae f incisura, ________________ f = notch scapula, ae f scapula, ________________ f = shoulder blade ulna, ____ ____ ulna, ________________ ___ = ulna bone (medial forearm bone) substantia, ____ ____ substantia, _____________ ___ = substance, matter cubitus, i m cubitus, cubiti m = elbow humerus, i m humerus, ________________ m = upper arm bone radius, ii m radius, _________________ m = radius, lateral bone of forearm nervus, ___ ____ nervus, __________________ m = nerve carpus, ____ ____ carpus, ______________, ____ = wrist digitus, ____ ____ digitus, _______________, ____ = finger membrum, i n membrum, membri n = limb brachium, ii n brachium, brachii n = upper arm ligamentum, ____ ___ ligamentum, _______________ n = ligament collum, ____ ____ collum, ________________ ___ = neck 9 The dictionary form of Latin nouns Vocabulary scapula = shoulder blade scapula, scapulae f = shoulder blade spina scapulae = spine of the scapula bone/shoulder blade spina, spinae f = spine,thorn vita = life curriculum, curriculi n = course Curriculum vitae = course of life vita, vitae f humerus= upper arm bone caput, capitis n = head caput humeri = head of humerus humerus, humeri m = upper arm bone Dominus = Lord annus, anni m = year Anno Domini (A.D.)= in the year of the Lord Dominus, domini m = Lord brachium = arm, upper arm musculus, musculi m = muscle m. biceps brachii = biceps/two-headed muscle of the arm biceps (bicipitis) = two-headed pollex = thumb brachium, brachii n = arm m. flexor pollicis brevis = short flexor muscle of thumb flexor, flexoris m = bending muscle corpus = body pollex, pollicis m = thumb pars corporis = part of the body brevis, breve = short corpus, corporis n = body pars, partis f = part In a dictionary entry Latin nouns contain two forms of the noun + an abbreviation: humerus, -i m = humerus, humeri m m= masculinum (masculine) scapula, -ae f = scapula, scapulae f f = femininum (feminine) brachium, -i n = brachium, brachii n n = neutrum (neuter) pollex, -icis m = pollex, pollicis m corpus, -oris n = corpus corporis n Singular Nominative Singular Genitive grammatical gender = singularis nominativus = singularis genitivus = Sg. Nom. = Sg. Gen. = humerus = ____ of humerus = shoulder blade = ____ of shoulder blade = upper arm = ____ of upper arm = thumb = ____ of thumb = body = ____ of body Singularis = Singular = one item --> digitus = a finger Pluralis = Plural = more items --> digiti = fingers Nominativus = Nominative = the name of the thing(s) --> digitus/digiti = finger / fingers Genitivus = Genitive = __________ of the thing(s) --> musculus digiti / musculus digitorum = muscle of finger/muscle of fingers 10 Vocabulary 1 Latin English annus, anni m year brachium, brachii n arm brachium, brachii n upper arm caput, capitis n head carpus, carpi m wrist clavicula, claviculae f clavicle collum, colli n neck corpus, corporis n body cubitus, cubiti m elbow curriculum, curriculi n course digitus, digiti m finger Dominus, domini m Lord flexor, flexoris m bending muscle humerus, humeri m upper arm bone humerus, humeri m upper arm bone incisura, incisurae f notch ligamentum, ligamenti n ligament membrum, membri n limb musculus, musculi m muscle nervus, nervi m nerve pars, partis f part pollex, pollicis m thumb radius, radii m radius, lateral bone of forearm scapula, scapulae f shoulder blade spina, spinae f spine,thorn substantia, substantiae f substance, matter ulna, ulnae f ulna bone (medial forearm bone) vita, vitae f life 11 Did you know? Believe it or not, more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and you are speaking, more or less, Latin every day! And here are quite a few abbreviations that you may have used without ever having realized their original Latin content. Match each Latin abbreviation with its full form, then with its English meaning. confer ante meridiem exempli gratia per centum Curriculum Vitae circa versus Philosophiae Doctor post meridiem id est Nota bene post scriptum Anno Domini et alii Requiescat in pace et cetera Latin Abbr. Meaning in English Anno Domini A.D. 13) 1) after midday, afternoon a.m. 2) around, about, approximately p.m. 3) and others, and co-authors; used in referring to authors or other people also involved in something c., ca., cca. 4) after what has been written; used at the end of informal letters C.V. or CV 5) may he/she rest in peace cf. 6) and so on..., and the others... e.g. 7) that is, in other words; used to explain the exact meaning of something mentioned before it et al. 8) course of life, a short written document about your education and past employment etc. 9) for example, for instance i.e. 10) for each one hundred; % N.B. 11) against P.S. 12) compare, used in references per cent. 13) in the year of the Lord; in the years of the Christian calendar era Ph.D. 14) before midday, before noon; R.I.P. 15) note well; used to make a reader pay attention to an important piece of information vs or v. 16) Teacher of Philosophy 12 Chapter 2 Anatomical positions, planes and directions A) Body positions Give the Latin name of the position based on the pictures. In anatomy all the directional terms are referred to as the so called anatomical position of the body. (1)_Positio _______________ is a standard position of the body: standing erect, facing directly forward, feet pointed forward and slightly apart, and arms hanging down at the sides with palms facing forward. This position is used as a reference to describe sites or motions of various parts of the = Positio supina body. In (2) positio ___________ the body is lying on the belly with the face down. = Positio prona In (3) positio ___________ the body is lying on the back with the face up. Fig. 2.2 Positio anatomica (anatomical position) Fig. 2.1 B) Anatomical planes of the body Give the Latin name of each plane on the basis of the pictures. 1) ________________/________________ planes pass longitudinally through the body from side to side, at right angles to the median plane, dividing the body into front and back parts 2) _________________/______________ planes pass horizontally through the body, at right angles to the sagittal and frontal planes, and dividing the body into upper and lower portions. 3) _________________/ ______________ plane Fig. 2.3 passes longitudinally through the middle of the body from front to back, dividing it into right and left halves. 4) ________________/ _________________ planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane, dividing the body into left and right portions. 13 C) Directional terms Give the Latin terms based on the pictures. 1) the right eye: oculus ____________ 2) the left eye: oculus ____________ 3) the border of the humerus situated closer to the median plane or midline of the body is margo _______________ humeri 4) the border of the humerus situated away from the median plane of the body is margo _______________ humeri 5) the end of a bone in the limb closer to the trunk is epiphysis ____________ 6) the end of a bone in the limb closer to the trunk is epiphysis ______________ Fig. 2.4 7) toward the front side or pertaining to the belly surface: ______________ / _______________ 8) toward the back side or pertaining to the back: ______________ / _______________ 9) upper part or toward the head: _________ / _________ 10) lower part or pertaining to the tail (bone): ______________ / _______________ 11)front side of the hand: ______________ / ___________ 12)back side of the hand: ______________ 13)sole of the foot: ______________ 14)back or upper part of the foot: ________________ Fig. 2.5 14 Further directional terms externus (Eng. external): outer, situated near the outside internus (Eng. internal): within or inside medius (Eng. middle): in the middle, between externus and internus, superior and inferior E.g. auris externa = external ear auris media = middle ear auris interna = internal ear Fig. 2.6 superficialis (Eng. superficial): pertaining to or situated near the surface profundus (Eng. deep), situated at a deeper layer Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8 15 Adjectives with nouns Nouns As we have seen Latin nouns have a gender (masculinum, femininum or oculus, oculi m = eye neutrum, abbr.: m/f/n) musculus, musculi m = muscle Adjectives have different endings for the different grammatical genders. dens, dentis m = tooth If an adjective is attached to the noun, it must agree with the noun in gender, arteria, arteriae f = artery number and case. auris, auris f = ear facies, faciei f = face, surface musculus + externus, externa, externum --> musculus externus = external m. caries, cariei f = tooth decay auris + externus, externa, externum --> auris externa = external ear palatum, palati n = palate organum + externus, externa, externum --> organum externum = external brachium, brachii n = arm organ organum, organi n = organ oculus + dexter, dextra, dextrum --> oculus dexter = right eye auris + dexter, dextra, dextrum --> auris dextra = right ear brachium + dexter, dextra, dextrum --> brachium dextrum = right arm Three-ending adjectives m f n Short dictionary form ___us, -a, -um = -us 3 externus externa externum = externus, -a, -um ___er, -a, -um = -er 3 dexter dextra dextrum = dexter, -tra, -trum musculus + palmaris, palmare --> musculus palmaris = palmar muscle arteria + palmaris, palmare --> arteria palmaris = palmar artery ligamentum + palmaris, palmare --> ligamentum palmare = palmar ligament musculus + superior, superius --> musculus superior = upper muscle arteria + superior, superius --> arteria superior = upper artery ligamentum + superior, superius --> ligamentum superius = upper ligament Two-ending adjectives m+f n Short dictionary form ___is, -e = -is 2 palmaris palmare = palmaris, -e ___ior, -ius = -ior 2 superior superius = superior, -ius ramus + ascendens ramus ascendens = ascending branch aorta + ascendens aorta ascendens = ascending aorta colon + ascendens colon ascendens = ascendding colon One-ending adjectives m+f+n ___ns ascendens ___x simplex Give the missing forms of the adjectives m f n proximalis 2 ____proximalis____ ________________ _________________ posterior 2 _________________ ________________ _____posterius_____ medius 3 _________________ ___media________ _________________ sinister 3 sinister______ ________________ __________________ 16 Exercises 1. Write the name of the corresponding section of the skull. Use: coronalis 2, medianus 3, transversalis 2, coronalis 2 sectio ____________________ cranii Fig. 2.11 sectio ____________________ cranii Fig. 2.12 sectio ____________________ cranii Fig. 2.13 17  2. Provide the missing directional terms in the pictures. Nuchal lines Fig. 2.14 linea nuchae _______________ linea nuchae _______________ Fontanelles Fig. 2.15 fonticulus _________________ fonticulus _________________ Condyles and malleoli Fig. 2.16 condylus ___________ condylus _________________ malleolus ___________ malleolus ___________ 18  Hand, foot and phalanges Fig. 2.17 phalanx ___________ _________________ phalanx ___________ _________________ phalanx ___________ _________________ ossa metacarpi _________________ Fig. 2.18 ossa carpi _________________ _________________ Flexor digitorum muscles - surface and deep layer _________________ _________________ Fig. 2.19 Fig. 2.20 19 3. True – False Examine each of the following statements. If the statement is true, write T; if false, write F in the first blank, and then correct the statement by replacing the underlined word in the second blank. E.g. The wrist is distal to the elbow. _T___ __________ A midsagittal plane divides the body into equal dexter and sinister parts. ____ __________ A horizontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. ____ __________ The chest is inferior to the belly. ____ __________ The little finger is dexter to the thumb. ____ __________ In anatomical position the palm is turned to the back. ____ __________ In the prone position, a person is lying face-up. ____ __________ Anterior teeth have incisal edge. ____ __________ Posterior teeth have labial surface. ____ __________ A right mandibular canine tooth has a palatal surface. ____ __________ 4. Odd One Out Eliminate the one term that does not fit in with the rest. Explain your choice briefly. palmaris – ventralis – caudalis – anterior ___________________ plantaris – sagittalis – horizontalis – frontalis _____________________ superior – distalis – cranialis _____________________ 5. Synonyms Write a word that means the same as each of the following. dorsalis ____________________ cranialis _____________________ inferior ____________________ frontalis _____________________ palmaris ____________________ anterior _____________________ 6. Opposites. Write a word that means the opposite of each of the following. superior ____________________ externus _____________________ profundus ____________________ lateralis _____________________ volaris ____________________ dexter _____________________ plantaris ____________________ proximalis _____________________ 20 7. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word. The thumb is on the ____________ side of the hand, the little finger is on the _________ side of it. Pectoralis major muscle is a surface muscle of the chest so its position is termed as _________. The toes are at the _____________ part of the lower limb. The elbow is _______________ to the wrist, and the wrist is _______________ to the elbow. The nails are on the _______________ and ________________ parts of the fingers or toes. The bones are ___________________ to the muscles, but the skin is _______________ to them. The spinal column is ___________________ to the heart, but the breastbone is ___________ to it. The hip bones’ position is _________________ to the spinal column. Heart is _________________ to the stomach, the stomach is _________________ to the heart. Kidneys are ________________ to the backbone. 8. Match the following directional terms with the name of the parts they refer to. 21 Vocabulary 2 - Anatomical positions, planes and directions Directional term English term Meaning in English planum, plani n plane medianus, -a, -um median positioned at the midline of the body or a part planum medianum median plane the plane dividing the body into right and left halves planum paramedianum paramedian planes parallel to the median plane, dividing the body into left plane and right portions horizontalis, -e /transversus, - horizontal/tra dividing the body into upper and lower parts a, um nsverse frontalis, -e/ coronalis, -e frontal planes dividing the body into front and back parts anterior, anterius anterior directed toward or situated on the belly surface, front side posterior, posterius posterior positioned toward the back ventralis, ventrale ventral directed toward or situated on the belly surface dorsalis, dorsale dorsal positioned toward the back / back of hand / back of foot palmaris, palmare palmar pertaining to the anterior surface of the hand volaris, volare volar pertaining to the anterior surface of the hand plantaris, plantare plantar pertaining to the sole of the foot superior, superius superior upper inferior, inferius inferior lower cranialis, craniale cranial positioned toward the head caudalis, caudale caudal positioned toward the tailbone dexter, dextra, dextrum dexter right side sinister, sinistra, sinistrum sinister left side medialis, mediale medial situated toward the midline of the body or a structure lateralis, laterale lateral situated away from the median plane of the body proximalis, proximale proximal in the limbs, closer to the trunk or origin distalis, distale distal in the limbs, away from the trunk; externus, externa, externum external situated near the outside internus, interna, internum internal inner or inside intermedius, -a, -um middle middle, in between medialis and lateralis superficialis, superficiale superficial situated on the surface of the structure profundus, -a, -um deep deep 22 Chapter 3 Parts of the body 1. Find the meaning of the English phrases related to the body parts, then label the picture with the appropriate Latin names of the parts. Latin English phrase Meaning in English corpus extracorporal 1) a cream used on the face cervix cervical vertebrae 2) upper limb, parts furthest from the center, i.e. arms and hands truncus trunk 3) outside of the body facies facial cream 4) part of the spine at the neck caput capital city 5) lower limb, parts furthest from the center, i.e. legs and feet extremitas superior upper extremity 6) head city, main city extremitas inferior lower extremity 7) the main part of the body apart from the head, neck and limbs Fig. 3.1 23 2.Find the missing words, then label the picture with the appropriate Latin names. Latin English phrases of Latin origin Missing words oculus Ocular muscles control the movement of the ____________. frontal os __________ hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth and teeth clean. temporal nasus ___________ sprays are administered into the nostrils of the nose. buccal auris An aural comprehension test measures ___________ skills. eyes bucca The ____________ surface of the teeth faces the inside of cheeks. nasal occiput The ____________ lobe is in the posterior part of the brain. chin frons The ____________ lobe is the part of the brain behind the forehead. nuchal tempora The ____________ lobe is the part of the brain at the temples. occipital mentum Mental foramina are holes of the mandible at the ________. oral nucha Trapezius muscle is attached to the superior ________ line at the nape. listening Fig. 3.2 3. Match the parts of the sentences and then label the pictures with the Latin names. Latin English phrases of Latin origin End part of the sentence thorax Thoracic cavity includes a) in the breasts. abdomen Abdominal muscles, e.g. “six-pack abs” are b) at the lower back or loin. pelvis Pelvic cavity contains c) a depression at the groin. inguen Inguinal region includes d) the hip bone. pubes Pubic region is e) the heart and the lungs. umbilicus Umbilical cord connects f) muscles of the belly region. coxa Os coxae is g) towards the back. mamma Mammary glands are situated h) urinary and inner reproductive organs. dorsum Dorsal direction points i) the fetus’ navel to the placenta. lumbus Lumbar spine is located j) covered by hair in adults. Fig. 3.3 24 4. Find the missing words, then label the picture with the appropriate Latin names. Latin English phrases of Latin origin Missing words carpus The 8 carpal bones are found in the ______________. thumb antebrachium Antebrachial region is situated in the _______________. palma pollex Flexor pollicis longus muscle is a flexor muscle of the ____________. indexfinger cubitus Cubital fossa is the common site for IV injections at the __________. arm manus A manual is a small reference book that can be held in __________. forearm digitus Fingers or toes are sometimes referred to as ___________. hand brachium Brachial artery is situated in the ______________. digits index The 2nd finger is commonly called ______________. elbow ___________ ____________ manus is the front side of the hand. dorsum ___________ ____________ manus is the back side of the hand. hand ___________ Metacarpal bones are found in the middle part of the ____________ wrist Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 25 5. Based on the labelled picture fill in the blanks in the sentences and give the Latin names of the body parts. Latin English phrases of Latin origin Missing words _________ Femoral veins supply the muscles of the _____________ knee ___________ Gluteus maximus muscle is the largest muscle of the _____________. sole ___________ Triceps surae muscle is the three-headed muscle of the ___________. big toe ___________ Popliteal fossa is a depression at the back of ______________. knee ___________ Planta pedis is the bottom or ___________ of the foot. calf of leg ___________ Crural bones are the two bones of the _____________. ankle ___________ Regio genus is the region of the _______________ thigh ___________ Extensor hallucis muscle is the muscle of the ______________. buttock ___________ Malleolus medialis is the medial part of the _______________. lower leg Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 26 6. Match the pairs. English Latin arm 1. cervix chest 2. sura cheek 3. mentum knee 4. nucha chin 5. dorsum nape 6. brachium calf of leg 7. bucca back 8. thorax neck 9. calx heel 10. genu 7. Give the Latin eqivalents of the English words. English Latin groin __________________ lower leg __________________ palm __________________ loin __________________ ear __________________ breast __________________ buttock __________________ wrist __________________ elbow __________________ back of head __________________ 27 8. Group the words according to the categories. poples, pes, facies, lumbus, cervix, caput, coxa, cubitus, umbilicus, axilla, planta, vola, nucha, digitus medius, oculus, occiput, mamilla, abdomen, genu, metatarsus, carpus Head and neck Trunk Upper limb Lower limb 9. Odd one out. hallux – poples – axilla - calx _________________ genu – sura – umbilicus – malleolus _________________ nucha – bucca – cervix – collum _________________ cubitus – lumbus – palma – pollex _________________ cor – pulmo – thorax – lien _________________ 10. Describe the position. Umbilicus is situated at the ____________________ part of the abdomen. Pollex is situated at the ______________ part of the manus. Caput is situated ____________________ to the collum or cervix. Calx is situated at the _________________ part of the pes. Malleolus is situated _____________________ to genu. 28 Vocabulary 3-4 – Body parts Latin English abdomen, abdominis n. belly, abdomen acromion, acromii n. tip of shoulder antebrachium, antebrachii n. forearm arteria, arteriae f. artery auris, auris f. ear axilla, axillae f armpit brachium, brachii n. arm bucca, buccae f. cheek calx, calcis, f. heel capillus, capilli m. hair caput, capitis n. head carpus, carpi m. wrist cervix, cervicis f. neck collum, colli n. neck cor, cordis n heart corpus, corporis n. body coxa, coxae f. hip crus, cruris, n. lower leg cubitus, cubiti m. elbow cutis, cutis, f. skin dens, dentis m tooth digiti manus fingers of the hand digiti pedis toes digitus anularis ring finger digitus medius middle finger digitus minimus little finger digitus, digiti m. finger dorsum manus back of hand dorsum pedis back of foot, instep dorsum, dorsi n. back extremitas inferior lower limb extremitas superior upper limb extremitas, -tatis f limb, extremity facies, faciei f. face, surface femur, femoris n. thigh frons, frontis f. forehead genu, genus n. knee gluteus, glutei m buttock hallux, hallucis m. big toe hepar, hepatis n liver homo, hominis m. man, human index, indicis m. index finger, 2nd finger inguen, inguinis n. groin 29 Latin English intestinum tenue small intestine, bowel intestinum crassum large intestine, bowel lien, lienis m spleen lumbus, lumbi m. loin malleolus, malleoli m. ankle mamilla, mamillae f. nipple mamma, mammae f. breast manus, manus f. hand membrum inferius lower limb membrum superius upper limb membrum, membri n. limb, extremity mentum, menti n. chin metacarpus, metacarpi m. middle part of hand metatarsus, metatarsi m. middle part of foot musculus, musculi m. muscle nasus, nasi m. nose nervus, nervi m. nerve nucha, nuchae f. back of neck occiput, occipitis n. back of head oculus, oculi m. eye olecranon, olecrani n. point of elbow os, oris n. mouth os, ossis n bone palma, palmae f. palm pectus, pectoris n. upper part of chest pelvis, pelvis f. pelvis pes, pedis m. foot planta, plantae f. sole pollex, pollicis m. thumb poples, poplitis f. back of knee pubes, pubis f. front part of hip bone pulmo, pulmonis m lung ren, renis m kidney supercilium, -cilii n. eyebrows sura, surae f. calf of leg tarsus, tarsi m. posterior part of foot tempora, orum n.(plur.) temple thorax, thoracis m. chest truncus, trunci m. trunk, torso umbilicus, umbilici m. belly button, navel vena, venae f. vein ventriculus, ventriculi m stomach, ventricle vola, volae f. palm 30 Grammar 1 Basic elements of Latin grammar Number: Singular and plural forms Greek and Latin are more highly inflected languages than English. Latin, like English, has two categories of grammatical number, singular and plural. (Abbr.: Sing., Plur.) Inflection or declension Both in English and in Latin words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, who, whose; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called inflection. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension, that of a verb its conjugation. Nominative or subject case In the declension of nouns nominative or subject case generally marks the subject of a verb, the noun "that is doing something" is in the nominative, and the nominative is the first word in the dictionary form of the noun. Genitive or possessive case. The genitive form or case of a noun denotes possession or some similar relation, usually one that can be expressed in English with the preposition of. Many standard medical phrases consist of two nouns, one in the nominative case and one in the genitive case: E.g.: os coxae, ‘bone of hip’; cavum oris ‘cavity of the mouth’, We may as well mention such examples from everyday English as: E.g.: A.D., Anno Domini, ‘in the year … of the Lord’; C.V., Curriculum Vitae, ‘course of life’; Ph.D., Philosophiae Doctor, ‘teacher of philosophy’. Singular genitive form of nouns is the second word in the dictionary form of them and may be formed in various ways depending on the class or declension to which the noun belongs. 1. Observe and translate the following phrases. os coxae the bone _of the hip coxa, coxae f musculus digiti the muscle _____________________ __________________ musculus biceps brachii the biceps muscle _______________ __________________ musculus latissimus dorsi the broadest muscle ______________ __________________ dorsum pedis the back side ____________________ __________________ caput femoris the head _______________________ __________________ musculus longus capitis the long muscle ___________________ __________________ palma manus the front side _____________________ __________________ articulatio genus the joint _______________________ __________________ musculus faciei the muscle __________________ __________________ 2. Try to answer the questions.  Underline the possessive/Genitive forms in the previous phrases, then write their full dictionary form on the right side.  What is the word order in the possessive phrases?  Which part of the dictionary form is the possessive/genitive?  How many possible endings can you find? 31 The dictionary form of the nouns Latin dictionaries as well as the Vocabulary part of each chapter contain each Latin root word in the dictionary form providing us three important pieces of information about a noun: 1. Nominative singular form 2. Genitive singular form (or ending) 3. Gender: m. / f. / n. E.g.: coxa, coxae (-ae), f. ‘hip’; musculus, musculi m., ‘muscle’; cranium, cranii, n. ‘skull’ 1. The nominative singular form: coxa ‘hip’; musculus ‘muscle’; cranium ‘skull’ 2. The genitive singular form: coxae ‘of the hip’; musculi ‘of the muscle’ cranii ‘of the skull’ 3. The gender of the noun f. ‘feminine’ m. ‘masculine’ n. ‘neuter’ Declensions On the basis of the genitive singular ending (or suffix) of a Latin noun each of them can be classed into one of the five different declensions or classes. It is also important to keep in mind that the part of the noun without this genitive suffix can technically be termed as a root (or base) to which both plural endings and adjective-forming suffixes join. Sing. Gen. Declension Dictionary form suffix -ae 1. declension E.g. vena, venae f. -i 2. declension E.g. nasus, nasi m.; brachium, brachii n.; -is 3. declension E.g. cervix, cervicis f.; caput, capitis n.; corpus, corporis n. -ūs 4. declension E.g. manus, manus f.; genu, genus n. -ēi 5. declension Eg. facies, faciei f. Table of suffixes I. II. III. IV. V. Gender f m n m/f n m /f n f Sing. Nom. -a -us/-er -um/-on various -us -u -es Sing. Gen. -ae -i -is -us -ei 32 Grammar exercises 1. Put each word into the appropriate declension class on the basis of its dictionary form. I. II. III. IV. V. Sing. Gen.: -ae Sing. Gen.: -i Sing. Gen..: -is Sing. Gen.: -us Sing. Gen. -ei cubitus, cubiti m. lingua, linguae f; fascia, fasciae f.; genu, genus n.; caries, cariei f; cancer, cancri m.; pectus, pectoris n.; paries, parietis m.; cor, cordis n.; bacillus, bacilli m.; ovum, ovi n.; fetus, fetus m.; mens, mentis f.; fundus, fundi m.; dens, dentis m; foramen, foraminis n.; frons, frontis f.; meatus, meatus m. tonsilla, tonsillae f.; labium, labii n nodus, nodi m.; res, rei f.; fornix, fornicis f.; 2. Fill in the blanks of the table with the missing forms. Use the vocabulary. Sing. Nom. Sing. Gen. Sing. Nom. Sing. Gen. sura occiput mamma femur lumbus extremitas mentum pelvis pollex ren buccae frontis umbilici oris hepatis genus cutis manus pubis faciei. 33 3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate English meaning or the Sing. Genitive form of each body part on the basis of the English explanation. English term Latin (Terminologia Anatomica) abdominal cavity (cavity of the belly) cavum abdominis ___________ cavity (cavity of the ________) cavum nasi _______ cavity (cavity of the ________) cavum pelvis biceps m. of the __________ biceps brachii muscle abductor muscle of the_________ abductor pollicis muscle adductor muscle of the _________ adductor hallucis muscle biceps muscle of the _________ biceps femoris muscle depressor muscle of the __________ depressor supercilii muscle extensor muscle of the __________ extensor indicis muscle Radial flexor muscle of the ___________ flexor carpi radialis muscle the broadest muscle of the ___________ latissimus dorsi muscle straight muscle of ___________ rectus abdominis muscle biceps muscle of the ___________ biceps femoris muscle depressor muscle of the corner of the ______ depressor anguli oris muscle lumbrical (worm-like) muscle of the _______ lumbricalis manus muscle lumbrical (worm-like) muscle of the foot lumbricalis __________ muscle orbicular (circular) muscle of the mouth orbicularis __________ muscle orbicular (circular) muscle of the eye orbicularis __________ muscle transverse muscle of the chest transversus ______ muscle triceps muscle of the calf triceps ____________muscle long muscle of head longus __________muscle hip joint articulatio __________ elbow joint articulatio __________ knee joint articulatio __________ thoracic cavity (cavity of the chest) cavum ____________ oral cavity (cavity of the mouth) cavum _____________ bones of the hand ossa_________________ bones of the forearm ossa ___________________ carpal bones ossa ___________________ 34 Chapter 5 Regions of the human body The regions of the head and the neck 1. Identify the regions on the basis of their Latin names. Some of them are not listed. regio buccalis ____ regio cervicalis lateralis ___ regio cervicalis posterior___ regio frontalis___ regio infraorbitalis ____ regio mentalis ____ regio nasalis ____ regio occipitalis ____ regio oralis ____ regio orbitalis ____ regio parietalis ___ regio sternocleidomastoidea____ regio temporalis ____ regio zygomatica ____ trigonum caroticum _____ trigonum submandibulare____ Fig. 5.1 trigonum submentale ______ 2. What is the Latin name of the region? region of the mouth _______________ region of the eye socket _______________ region of the forehead _______________ region of the nose _______________ region of the cheekbone_______________ region of the back of head _______________ region of the chin _______________ region below the eye socket _______________ region of the cheeks _______________ region at the temple _______________ region at the nape _______________ region under the lower jaw _______________ 3. Which part of the head or neck is injured when there is a wound or pain in the following regions? Region Body part Region Body part regio mentalis regio nasalis regio nuchalis regio orbitalis trigonum submentale regio infraorbitalis trigonum submandibulare regio oralis regio temporalis regio buccalis 35  Regions of the trunk and extremities 1. Identify the regions on the basis of their Latin names. Some of them are not listed. dorsum manus ____ dorsum pedis ___ palma/vola manus ____ planta pedis ___ regio abdominalis lateralis ____ regio analis ____ regio axillaris ____ regio calcanea ____ regio carpi volaris / dorsalis ___/___ regio deltoidea ____ regio epigastrica ____ regio glutea ____ regio hypochondriaca ____ regio inframammaria ____ regio infrascapularis ____ regio inguinalis ____ regio lumbalis ____ Fig. 5.2 regio mammaria ____ regio pectoralis ____ 2.Which region is mentioned in medical documents if the patient complains of pain regio presternalis ____ in the following parts: regio pubica ____ breast E.g. regio mammaria regio sacralis ____ spinal column __________________ regio scapularis ____ armpit __________________ regio umbilicalis ____ loin __________________ regio urogenitalis ____ wrist __________________ regio vertebralis ____ breastbone __________________ regiones antebrachii (ant./post.) ___/___ upper chest __________________ regiones brachii (anterior/posterior) ___/___ regiones cruris (ant./post.) ___/___ thigh __________________ regiones cubiti (ant./post.) ___/___ shoulder blade __________________ regiones femoris (ant./post.) ___/___ buttock __________________ regiones genus (ant./post) ___/___ part over the stomach________________ trigonum femorale ____ lower leg __________________ belly button, navel ________________ 36  Vocabulary 5 - Regions Latin English Meaning in English dorsum manus dorsal region back of the hand palma manus palmar region front side surface of the hand planta pedis plantar region sole, the bottom of the foot regio abdominis lateralis abdominal reg. region at the sides of the belly, flanks regio analis anal region region at the anal opening regio axillaris axillary region region at the armpit regio buccalis buccal region region at the cheek regio calcanea calcaneal region region at the heelbone regio carpi volaris/dorsalis carpal regions regions at the wrist (front/back) regio cervicalis anterior anterior cervical reg. the front side region of the neck regio cervicalis lateralis lateral cervical reg. the region at the sides of the neck regio cervicalis posterior region at the back of the neck, region of the nape posterior/nuchalis cervical/nuchal reg. regio deltoidea deltoid region at the deltoid muscle of the shoulder regio epigastrica epigastric region region of the upper central part of the abdomen located over the stomach regio femoris (ant./post.) femoral region regions of the thigh (front/back) regio frontalis frontal region region at the forehead regio genus (ant./post.) region of the knee regions of the knee (front/back) regio glutea gluteal region region at the buttock regio hypochondriaca hypochondriac region region below the costal cartilage regio inframammaria inframammary reg. region below the breast regio infraorbitalis infraorbital region region below the eye socket regio infrascapularis infrascapular reg. region below the shoulder blade regio inguinalis inguinal region region at the groin, lateral to the pubic r. regio lumbalis lumbar region region at the loin regio mammaria mammary region region at the breast regio mentalis mental region region at the chin regio nasalis nasal region region at the nose regio occipitalis occipital region region at the back of the head regio oralis oral region region at the mouth regio orbitalis orbital region region at the eye socket regio parietalis parietal region region at the parietal bone of the skull regio pectoralis pectoral region region at the chest regio presternalis presternal region region upon the sternum regio pubica pubic region region at the pubic bone regio sacralis sacral region region at the sacrum bone of the spinal column regio scapularis scapular region region at the shoulder blade regio sternocleidomastoidea sternocleidomastoid r. region of the muscle attached to sternum, clavicle and mastoid process regio temporalis temporal region region at the temple or temporal bone, regio umbilicalis umbilical region region at the belly button regio urogenitalis urogenital region region at the genitals regio vertebralis vertebral region region at the spinal column (L. vertebra) regio zygomatica zygomatic region region at the cheek bone of the skull regiones antebrachii (ant./post.) antebrachial reg. regions of the forearm (front/back) regiones brachii (ant./post.) brachial region regions of the arm (front/back) regiones cruris (ant./post.) crural region regions of lower leg (front/back) regiones cubiti (ant./post.) cubital region regions at the elbow (front/back) 37 Grammar 2 Latin adjectives and grammatical concord In Latin nouns and the adjectives referring to them must agree in number, case and grammatical gender. Latin adjectives can be grouped on the basis of the endings they have for the different genders. Gender m f n -us/-er -a -um ending 3- internus interna internum dexter dextra dextrum -is -is -e end. 2- medialis medialis mediale -ior -ior -ius end. 2- superior superior superius -ns/-x -ns/-x -ns/-x ending 1- ascendens ascendens ascendens simplex simplex simplex Types of Latin adjectives 3-ending adjectives: Gender (m) (f) (n) internus, -a, -um -US -A -UM internus 3 internus interna internum dexter, -tra, -trum -ER -A -UM dexter 3 dexter dextra dextrum Example of concord musculus (m.) internus vena (f) interna organum (n.) oculus (m.) dexter auris (f) dextra internum brachium (n) dextrum 2-ending adjectives (-is/-e): Gender (m) (f) (n) frontalis, -e -IS -IS -E frontalis 2 frontalis frontalis frontale Example of concord musculus (m) frontalis regio (f) frontalis os (n) frontale 2-ending adjectives (-ior/-ius): Gender (m) (f) (n) superior, -ius -IOR -IOR -IUS superior 2 superior superior superius Example of concord musculus (m) superior extremitas (f) superior membrum (n) superius 1-ending adjectives: Gender (m) (f) (n) ascendens ascendens ascendens ascendens Example of concord ramus (m) ascendens aorta (f) ascendens colon (n) ascendens 38 Grammar exercises 1. Categorize the following adjectival phrases according to their genders. digitus minimus, genu sinistrum, processus styloideus, fascia lata, glandula thyroidea, pulmo dexter, arteria femoralis, intestinum tenue, ren sinister articulatio radiocarpea ligamentum laterale tendo calcaneus atrium dextrum, musculus triceps, vena cava superior, foramen caecum, nervus digitalis, ventriculus dexter, masculine (m.) feminine (f.) neuter (n.) 2. Choose the appropriate form of the adjective according to the grammatical concord with the noun. Noun + adjective Adjectival phrase in concord arteria (f.) profundus, -a, um E.g. arteria profunda auris (f.) medius, -a, -um hemispherium (n.) sinister, -tra, -trum corpus (n.) alienus, -a, -um musculus (m.) subclavius, -a, -um genu (n.) dexter, -tra, -trum phalanx (f.) medius, -a, -um foramen (n.) magnus, -a, -um corpus (n.), albicans 3. Create adjective phrases from the words. Noun + adj. Adj. phrase Noun + adj. Adj. phrase malleolus (m), lateralis 2 e.g. malleolus lateralis os (n), temporalis 2 arteria (f) lateralis 2 musculus (m), inferior 2 ligamentum (n), longus 3 cornu (n), maior 2 genu (n), sinister 3 os (n), longus3 hallux (m), sinister 3 costa (f), fluctuans 1 39 Grammar 3 Formation of adjectives Most of the adjectives used in medical terminology are formed from nouns with the help of specific suffixes attached to the root of the noun. The names of body regions also contain a great number of such adjectives that show what body part the region is located at (e.g. frontalis coming from frons refers to the region situated at the forehead, the region pertaining to the forehead). As we have already mentioned, the adjective-forming suffixes are always added to the root of the word, which we get by removing the Sing. Genitive ending of the noun. E.g. axilla, axillae f → word root: axill- → adj. axill-aris frons, frontis f → word root: front- →adj. front-alis os, ossis n. → word root: oss- →adj. oss-eus Latin suffixes expressing relationship (location or origin) English* English suffix Latin Latin suffix m,f n nasal -al nasalis 2 -alis 2 / -alis -ale volar -ar volaris 2 -aris 2 / -aris, -are m f n thoracic -ic thoracicus 3 -icus 3 / -icus, -ica, -icum iliac -ac iliacus 3 -acus 3 / -acus, -aca, -acum mammary -ary mammarius 3 -arius 3 / -arius, -aria, -arium interosseous -eous osseus 3 -eus 3 / -eus, -ea, -eum cutaneous -aneous cutaneus 3 -aneus 3 / -aneus, -anea, -aneum *In English terminology these Latin suffixes are used in a simplified short form (-ac, -al, -ar, -ary, - eous, -ic); e.g. iliac, nasal, palmar, mammary, osseous, pubic etc. There are suffixes with 3 gender endings (-acus, -aca, -acum), and there are suffixes with 2 gender endings (-alis , -ale). Exercises 1. Underline the adjectives formed from nouns. Give the Latin root and the adjective suffix. Adjective phrases Latin root +Suffix Adjective phrases Latin root + Suffix thoracic nerve, thorac + ic________ renal pelvis _________________ oral cavity _________________ pulmonary trunk _________________ cubital fossa _________________ palmar ulnocarpal lig. _________________ lateral cutaneous nerve _________________ buccal region _________________ lienal artery _________________ visceral nervous system _________________ hepatic vein, _________________ occipital bone _________________ pectoralis major muscle _________________ cervical vertebra _________________ 40 2. Fill in the table with the missing forms (root of the noun and the adjectival form). Noun Root (from Suffix Adjective Example Sing. Gen.) occiput, occipitis n. occipit- m,f / n occipitalis, -ale arteria (f) occipitalis -alis/ale latus, lateris n. -alis/-ale margo (m) _____________ femur, femoris n. -alis/-ale nervus (m) _____________ thorax, thoracis m. m / f /n aorta (f) _____________ -icus/-ica/-icum fibula, fibulae f. -aris/-are arteria (f) _____________ radius, radii m. -alis/-ale ligamentum (n) _________ ulna, ulnae f. -aris/-are nervus (m) _____________ pelvis, pelvis f -inus/-ina/-inum foramen (n) ____________ facies, faciei -alis/-ale nervus (m) _____________ 3. Form adjectives and use them with the given noun to make a phrase. Be careful with the concord of genders. English noun Latin noun → root Adj. suffix Adjective Example cheek bucca, ae f → bucc- -alis/-ale buccalis/-ale facies (f) buccalis forehead -alis/-ale regio (f) _____________ finger -alis/-ale arteria (f) _____________ liver -icus/-ica/-icum vena (f) _____________ kidney -alis/-ale pelvis (f) _____________ sole -aris/-are musculus (m)___________ lung -alis/-ale vena (f) _____________ spleen -alis/-ale arteria (f) _____________ -alis/-ale belly button ligamentum (n) _________ -eus/-ea/-eum buttock linea (f) _____________ -alis/-ale elbow fossa (f)_____________ neck -alis/-ale arteria (f)_____________ breast -arius/-aria/-arium glandula (f) ___________ chin -alis/-ale foramen (n) ____________ 4. Transform English anatomical terms into their Latin equivalents. English phrase Latin phrase English phrase Latin phrase cubital fossa fossa cubitalis ulnar vein vena (f)_________ thoracic nerve nervus (m) ________________ renal pelvis pelvis (f) _________ iliac vein vena (f) ______________ femoral triangle trigonum (n) __________ palmar ligament ligamentum (n) _____________ zygomatic region regio (f) ____________ 41  Revision Test of Chapters 1-5 1. Mark the right answer of these questions with an „X” at the appropriate box below. 22/___ 1. Opposite of dorsalis is: a. superior b. frontalis c. palmaris d. posterior 2. The position of tarsus to genu is ________________ : a. distalis b. proximalis c. medialis d. superior 3. Calx in English is: a. forefinger b. heel c. big toe d. foot 4. Synonym (term with similar meaning) of caudalis direction is: a. lumbalis b. ventralis c. inferior d. plantaris 5. Latin name of sole is a. pes b. palma c. coxa d. planta 6. Digitus anularis in English is: a. forefinger b. middle finger c. ring finger d. second finger 7. The middle part of hand in Latin is: a. carpus b. tarsus c. metacarpus d. metatarsus 8. The Latin name of tip of shoulder is: a. occiput b. acromion c. olecranon d. scapula 9. The region below the cartilage of the ribs is named regio...: a. subcostalis b. subcartilaginea c. hypochondriaca d. diaphragmatica 10. The region over the stomach is regio... a. supraventricularis b. superstomachica c. abdominalis medialis d. epigastrica 11. The region at the heelbone is regio...: a. talaris b. calcanea c. tarsalis d. malleolaris 12. The region of the cheekbone is regio...: a. zygomatica b. buccalis c. malaris d. mentalis 13. The region at the groin is regio...: a. lumbalis b. urogenitalis c. inguinalis d. pubica 14. The act of chewing is … a. extractio b. digestio c. masticatio d. protractio 15. The position of olecranon is _____________ to acromion: a. lateralis b. medialis c. proximalis d. distalis 16. The position of digitus minimus is ____________ to the other fingers a. medialis b. lateralis c. dexter d. profundus 17. The third part in the dictionary form of Latin nouns is: a. Singular Nominative b. Singular Genitive c. Gender d. Plural Nominative 18. We get the root of a noun after cutting the ending of....... from the dictionary form of a noun a. Sing.Gen. b.Sing.Nom. c. Plur. Gen. d. Plur Nom 19. Opposite of medialis is: a. caudalis b. lateralis c. distalis d. posterior 20. Opposite of superior is: a. anterior b. inferior c. distalis d. dorsalis 21. The opposite or antonym of ventralis is: a. plantaris b. dorsalis c. volaris d. caudalis 22. Singular Nominative form of inguinis is: a. inguinus b. inguinal c. inguen d. inguinal 42 2. Name the body parts in Latin. 10/___ Fig. 3.2 3. Give the Latin name of the region at the body part (regio....) 8/___ belly button __________________ loin __________________ knee __________________ orbital cavity __________________ back of hand __________________ breast __________________ nose __________________ back of neck __________________ 4. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate Genitive form. 5/___ cavity of the nose – cavum ______________ bones of the wrist – ossa ______________ abductor muscle of the thumb – abductor ______________ muscle hip joint – articulatio ______________ toes (fingers of foot) – digiti ______________ 5. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate directional term. 4/___ The thumb is on the ___________________ side of the hand. The toes are at the ___________________ part of the lower limb. The spinal column is ___________________ to the heart. The skin is ___________________ to the muscles. 6. Give the adjectives using the Latin word roots and adding the appropriate suffix. 5/____ English Adjective phrase E.g. the gland at the cheeks glandula bucc-alis/ale muscles of the tongue musculus (m)_____________alis/ale region of back of head region (f)_____________alis/ale vertebra at the chest vertebra (f)______________icus/-ica/-icum muscles at the sole musculus (m)______________aris/are muscles at the forehead musculus (m)______________alis/ale 43 Chapter 6 The skeletal system The skeletal system is the body's framework of bones; there are 206 distinct bones in the body of an average adult human. The bones give support and shape to the body, protect internal organs, and provide sites of attachment for muscles to make motion possible. In addition, they store and help maintain the correct level of calcium and the bone marrow manufactures blood cells. 1 epiphysis 2 diaphysis Bones are described as dense, hard, and somewhat 3 cartilago articularis flexible connective tissue constituting the framework of 4 substantia spongiosa the human skeleton Their Latin name is os (L. os, ossis 5 substantia compacta n.) with the word root oss- and derivatives like e.g. 6 medulla rubra ossification. The Greek word denoting a bone is osteon, 7 medulla flava with the root oste-, and such derivatives as e.g. 8 periosteum osteocyte, osteoblast, osteoclast or osteogenesis. 9 endosteum Fig. 6.1 10 cavum medullare 11 foramen nutricium Structural terms – Match the pairs. Definition Term the articular end of a long bone a) medulla flava dense bone substance at the outer part of a bone b) diaphysis the type of bone tissue consisting of lattice-shaped spicules; its c) articular cartilage structure is usually filled with red bone marrow the shaft of a long bone, consisting of a tube of compact bone enclosing d) red bone marrow the medullary cavity the cavity in the diaphysis of a long bone containing the marrow e) spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone the thick fibrous membrane covering a bone f) endosteum the tissue lining the medullary cavity of a bone g) compact (cortical) bone the type of bone marrow in which blood cells are produced (the site of h) periosteum hematopoiesis) the bone marrow that is rich in fat, occurring in adults i) medullary cavity (canal) the external opening for the entrance of blood vessels in a bone. j) nutrient foramen a type of hyaline connective tissue that covers the articulating surfaces k) epiphysis of bones 44 Classification of bones Bones can be classified either on the basis of their shape or on their location within the skeleton. Based on their shape the following types of bones can be identified:  long bones (L. ossa longa) are the elongated bones of the extremities, consisting of a tubular shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses) usually wider than the shaft; the shaft is composed of compact bone surrounding a central medullary cavity. (E.g. femur, tibia, humerus)  short bones (L. ossa brevia) are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. E.g. carpal and the tarsal bones (L. ossa carpi, ossa tarsi) are short bones.  flat bones (L. ossa plana) are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. E.g. most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as are the sternum and the scapula.  irregular bones (L. ossa irregularia) do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. The bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones.  sesamoid bones (L. ossa sesamoidea) are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform. Based on their location the 206 bones of adult human skeleton are classified into the following categories:  axial skeleton forms the central core or vertical axis (L. axis) of the bony framework of the body including the 80 bones of the head and the trunk  appendicular skeleton includes the 126 bones of the limbs and is attached to the axial skeleton (L. appendix, attachment) 45 Axial skeleton Bones of the skull The skull is also called the cranium (Gr. kranion, kranos, helmet). The bones of the skull are divided into two main groups:  neurocranium or braincase (L. cranium cerebrale) including 7 bones (with