Marsci Exam 1 PDF

deSea Creatures and Where to Find Them Marine Ecology and Biology Term List & Question Library for Exam 1 **[If you use chatgpt put it in pink]** **[Put stuff found in class/online resources in blue]** **[I'm putting stuff in GREY that were on the doc before i made the more in-depth answer, bc...

deSea Creatures and Where to Find Them Marine Ecology and Biology Term List & Question Library for Exam 1 **[If you use chatgpt put it in pink]** **[Put stuff found in class/online resources in blue]** **[I'm putting stuff in GREY that were on the doc before i made the more in-depth answer, bc it could still be helpful, but not necessary ]** **[Quizlet from a stranger: ]** **[another quizlet from a stranger: ']** **[Term List:]** Sexual dimorphism Countershading Tropicalization Facilitation Competition Science Benthic Pelagic Climate change Ecosystem Engineer Osmoregulator vs Osmoconformer Mutualism Predation Competition Bioelectricity Echolocation Ecology Nematocyst Radula Scyphozoa Anthozoa Choanocytes Archeocytes Colloblasts Madreporite Exoskeleton they're not grading us on our prose, we can use numbers/format to structure responses. - **[CHAT GPT Term Definitions: ]** **Sexual dimorphism**: The differences in appearance between males and females of the same species, often related to size, coloration, or body structure, commonly observed in many marine species. **Countershading**: A form of camouflage where an animal\'s coloration is darker on the top and lighter on the underside, helping it blend into both the ocean depths and surface when viewed from different angles. **Tropicalization**: The phenomenon where warm-water species expand their range toward higher latitudes as sea temperatures increase, often linked to climate change. The spread of tropical species to temperate zones due to the (HE USED SOME WORD HERE STARTING WITH A) warming of waters. not about more babies, it's about temperature (species surviving in areas where they used to freeze) **Facilitation**: Positive interactions between species where one organism benefits another, often by providing shelter, nutrients, or another resource, common in coral reefs or mangrove systems. **Competition**: The struggle between organisms or species for limited resources such as food, space, or light, which can influence population dynamics and community structure. **Science**: In marine biology, this refers to the systematic study of the ocean and its life forms, including observation, experimentation, and theoretical analysis to understand marine ecosystems. **Benthic**: Refers to organisms that live on, in, or near the seabed, also known as the benthic zone, including species like crabs, sea stars, and benthic fish. **Pelagic**: Refers to organisms that live in the open water column, away from the ocean bottom, such as many species of fish, jellyfish, and plankton. **Climate change**: The long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns, affecting ocean conditions such as sea level, temperature, and acidity, which have profound impacts on marine ecosystems. **Ecosystem Engineer**: Species that create, modify, or maintain habitats, such as coral, which builds reefs, or mangroves, which stabilize coastal environments. **Osmoregulator vs Osmoconformer**: - - **Mutualism**: A symbiotic relationship where both species involved benefit, such as the relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. **Predation**: An interaction in which one organism (the predator) hunts and consumes another (the prey), crucial for maintaining population balance in ecosystems. **Grazing**: The consumption of algae or plants by herbivorous species like sea urchins or certain fish, important in controlling algal growth on reefs. **Carnivory**: The consumption of animal tissue by other animals, common in marine predators like sharks, orcas, and carnivorous fish. **Parasitism**: A relationship where one organism (the parasite) lives on or inside another organism (the host), deriving nutrients at the host\'s expense, such as parasitic copepods on fish. **Bioelectricity**: The ability of certain marine organisms, like electric eels and rays, to generate electric fields for predation, defense, or communication. **Echolocation**: The use of sound waves and echoes to determine the location of objects, used by marine mammals like dolphins and whales to navigate and hunt in dark or murky waters. **Ecology**: The study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment, focusing on relationships within marine ecosystems like coral reefs, kelp forests, or the deep sea. **Nematocyst**: Specialized stinging cells found in cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish, corals) used for defense and capturing prey. **Radula**: A tongue-like structure covered in teeth, found in mollusks (e.g., snails, squids), used for scraping or cutting food. **Scyphozoa**: A class of cnidarians commonly known as \"true jellyfish,\" characterized by their dominant medusa stage in the life cycle. **Anthozoa**: A class of cnidarians that includes corals and sea anemones, characterized by their polyp form and lack of a medusa stage. **Choanocytes**: Flagellated cells found in sponges that help in water circulation and filter feeding by trapping food particles. **Archeocytes**: Amoeboid cells found in sponges that are capable of transforming into other cell types, playing roles in digestion, reproduction, and regeneration. **Colloblasts**: Specialized adhesive cells used by ctenophores (comb jellies) to capture prey, distinct from the stinging nematocysts of cnidarians. **Madreporite**: A porous, calcareous plate found in echinoderms (e.g., sea stars, sea urchins), part of the water vascular system used in locomotion and feeding. **Exoskeleton**: A rigid external covering that provides support and protection to the body, found in marine arthropods (e.g., crabs, lobsters) and some mollusks. \[He has written out possible answers, IF WE GET INFORMATION FROM SOMEWHERE ELSE AND IT MAKES SENSE WE CAN USE IT\] **[Questions]** 1. Define science, ecology, driving agent, and response variable. What are the 5 different approaches in the scientific method? Provide a one-sentence definition of each approach. List a strength and weakness for each method. (Sofia) ========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. What are the 4 major classes in the phylum Mollusca? Choose 3 of these classes and compare and contrast 3 adaptations each has evolved from a common body plan for either a life in the benthic or pelagic environment. (Sarine) =================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== The **four major classes** in the phylum Mollusca are: - - - - Compare and Contrast adaptations: 1. All molluscs have a specialized foot used in digging, grasping, or creeping. The foot is a muscular organ modified into different forms in different molluscan classes - - - 2. Molluscs have a mantle or mass of soft flesh that covers the soft body and encloses the internal organs. In many species, the mantle produces a hard shell. Not all molluscs produce a shell. - - - - - - 3. Many molluscs have a radula, which, in most species, is a rasp-like scraping organ used in feeding (Fig. 3.54). The word derives from the Latin root prefix radul- meaning scraper. Not all molluscs have a radula, but nothing like it is found in any other group of organisms. - - - - #### #### **Adaptations for Benthic and Pelagic Environments:** 1. - - - Mucus to slide along the bottom 2. - i. ii. - - - 3. - - - - iii. iv. Similarities among all mollusks: [[https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/biological/invertebrates/phylum-mollusca]](https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/biological/invertebrates/phylum-mollusca) Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Bivalvia all use their foot for locomotion. In Gastropoda (snails, slugs), a single muscular foot is adapted to move along the ocean floor. In Cephalopoda (octopus, squid), the foot is modified into tentacles for swimming/using in the open pelagic environment. In Bivalvia (clams, mussels, oysters), the muscular foot is used to anchor them into the sand. Gastropodea and Bivalvia both have shells for protection, Cephalopoda do not. Bivalvia is the only one without defined head and eyes. 3. Compare and contrast the feeding strategies used for prey capture and subjugation used by a hard coral, sponge, and sea walnut (ctenophore), with specific mechanisms.(Sarine) ================================================================================================================================================================================= HARD CORAL: - - - - SEA WALNUT (Ctenophore): - - - - - SPONGE: - - - - - ### Feeding Strategies of Hard Coral, Sponge, and Sea Walnut (Ctenophore) - - - Nematocysts are the defining feature of cnidarians - - - - - Feeding and digestion: - - - - - Sponges are passive filter feeders, they don't move, but pump water and particles through their body. Food particles are moved by choanocyte cells, ingested by archeocyte cells. Flagella, hairlike structures, pump water. They pump their body volume every 5 seconds. - - - - - - - 4. What are 3 characteristics that distinguish annelids from mollusks and 3 characteristics they have in common? (Sarine) ========================================================================================================================= ### Characteristics Distinguishing and Common to Annelids (worms) and Mollusks - 1. 2. 3. - 4. 5. 6. 7. 5. Corals are successful benthic animals that can monopolize space. Discuss 3 reasons that might explain why corals instead of sponges are the dominant space-holding invertebrates on most tropical, shallow water reefs. Why do sponges tend to dominate reefs greater than 100m in depth? Hint: sponges also dominate deep underneath ledges on coral reefs. (Sarine) ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== 1. 2. - - 3. a. b. 4. 5. c. **Why do sponges dominate deep reefs?** 1. 2. Sponges often dominate reefs deeper than 100 meters because of their ability to efficiently filter feed on the smaller food particles available at those depths, particularly picoplankton and dissolved organic matter, while corals, which rely heavily on sunlight for their symbiotic algae, struggle to survive in such low light conditions; this allows sponges to thrive in deeper environments where other organisms face food limitations. **nd they have a ready supply of nutrients (they are 'farming' the algae to get a predictable supply of food)** 1. ### corals have exoskeletons so it can hold space more effectively in exposed environment, more resistant to wave stress 2. 3. a. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ### ### Coral vs. Sponge Dominance on Reefs - 3. 4. 5. - 6. 7. 8. 6. Describe 3 unique adaptations that annelids have evolved for tube dwelling versus errant lifestyles. (Sarine) ================================================================================================================ 1. 2. a. b. 3. c. 1. 2. 3. ### ### Adaptations of Annelids for Tube-Dwelling vs. Errant Lifestyles - 1. 2. 3. - 4. 5. 6. - - - - - - 7. Describe the process of molting in blue crabs. What are 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of having an exoskeleton on top of your epidermis. (Sofia) ====================================================================================================================================================== When a blue crab needs a larger shell, it goes through three stages of molting: Precdysis: Molting hormones are released, detaching the hypodermis from the old shell. Enzymes produced by the hypodermis dissolve the existing shell, recycling its components, while a new soft shell forms underneath. Ecdysis: The crab stops eating and seeks shelter to avoid predators. It absorbs water, causing its tissues to swell and split the old shell open. The crab backs out of its old shell and inflates the new one by pumping water into its tissues, resulting in a new shell about one-third larger than the old one. Postecdysis: Inorganic salts are redeposited to harden the new shell, which only hardens when submerged in water, taking about two to four days to complete. As the crab grows, the tissue water is replaced with protein, and once it outgrows the new shell, the molting process begins again. Pros of having an exoskeleton: 1. 2. 3. Cons: 1. 2. 3. - - - 8. Compare and contrast the feeding strategies of a bar jack, a Nassau grouper, and a banded butterfly fish. What specific morphological, coloring, and behavior adaptations have each fish evolved that increases the success of its respective feeding strategies? (Sarine) ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= \[chat gpt kinda ate with this one so i just added extra stuff\] #### **1. Bar Jack (Caranx ruber):** #### Jack, Bar - South Atlantic Fishery Management Council FEEDING STRATEGY: - - ADAPTATIONS: Morphological: - - - - Coloring: - behavioral - - 2\. **Nassau Grouper (Epinephelus striatus):**  FEEDING STRATEGY: Nassau groupers are **ambush predators** that rely on their ability to remain camouflaged among rocks and coral structures. They wait patiently for prey (primarily small fish, crustaceans, and octopuses) to come close, and then lunge forward with a sudden burst of speed. ADAPTATIONS Morphological: - - - Coloring - Behavioral **Sedentary ambush hunting**: Nassau groupers often stay motionless in hiding spots for long periods, saving energy while waiting for prey to come near. This ambush strategy contrasts with the active hunting style of the bar jack. They take advantage of lower light levels at dawn and dusk, combined with the higher number of prey during changeover between diurnal and nocturnal fish. That timing would mean they need to use less energy in ambushing their prey. #### **3. Banded Butterfly Fish (Chaetodon striatus):**Banded Butterflyfish \| NatureRules1 \... **Feeding Strategy**: Banded butterfly fish are **corallivores (feeds on coral)** and **omnivores**. They feed on coral polyps, small invertebrates, and algae. Their feeding is primarily based on precise picking at small organisms, often found in coral reefs or on the reef substrate. - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **Summary of Adaptations:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **2. Nassau Grouper (Epinephelus striatus):** Ambush (lie and wait) predators Truncate tail: cruises at intermediate speeds, very maneuverable due to increased surface area, and able to do bursts of speed when needed to lunge at prey - - - - - - - - - - - #### **3. Banded Butterfly Fish (Chaetodon striatus):** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **Summary of Adaptations:** - - - - - - - - - - - - Each fish species has evolved specialized adaptations that enhance the success of their respective feeding strategies, shaped by their habitats and ecological roles. 9. Name the 5 different types of fish tails. Draw each tail and place each at the proper location along a gradient of increasing initial thrust force so that its relative capability at generating a large, initial thrust force is conveyed. Now, draw each tail again and draw squiggly lines emanating anywhere from the tail that turbulence will be generated when that fish is moving at sustained high speeds. Which of these tails generates the least turbulence and why? Hint: the answer lies in understanding drag. Meghan ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= 10. Compare and contrast how bony fishes and sharks ventilate their gills. ========================================================================== **bony fish have one slit, one opening** **sharks have multiple slits, soft tissue over the slits** **Sharks: Opercular pumping--- active pumping. They ram themselves through the water environment.** **how do they ventilate the gills?** - Bony fishes (class **Osteichthyes**) and sharks (class **Chondrichthyes**) both use gills for gas exchange, but they have distinct methods of ventilating these gills due to differences in their anatomy and evolutionary adaptations. Here\'s a comparison of their gill ventilation mechanisms: ### **1. Gill Structure** - - ### **2. Ventilation Method** - - - - - - ### **3. Oxygen Demand and Activity Level** - - ### **4. Energy Efficiency** - - ### **Summary of Key Differences:** - - 11. Name three sensory capabilities that marine vertebrates have that we don't (or barely have) and explain how each one works. Use drawings if that is helpful in your explanation. (Fiorella) =============================================================================================================================================================================================== Aquatic organisms have developed specialized sensory systems to navigate and interact with their environment. One such system is the **lateral line system**, which enables fish to detect changes in water pressure. This system consists of a series of fluid-filled canals running along the sides of the body, containing sensory cells called neuromasts. These cells respond to vibrations and pressure waves in the water, allowing fish to sense the presence of obstacles, prey, or predators. Another adaptation found in some marine organisms, particularly elasmobranchs, is the ability to detect weak electric currents. These organisms possess specialized receptors and pores around their heads that contain conductive gel. This gel allows them to sense the subtle electrical fields emitted by other living creatures as they move through the saltwater. This ability, known as **electroreception**, is particularly useful for hunting and navigation in murky waters. Finally, many aquatic organisms, including dolphins and whales, have evolved the technique of **echolocation**. This process involves emitting high-frequency sound waves and listening to the echoes that return. The sound is produced by passing air through the respiratory system and manipulating the distance between the phonic lips. A specialized structure called the melon amplifies and directs the sound, while the lower jaw acts as an ear bone. The brain then interprets the echoes to determine the size, shape, and distance of objects in the environment. ### **Three Unique Sensory Capabilities in Marine Vertebrates** Marine vertebrates possess sensory adaptations that allow them to thrive in aquatic environments, often beyond the range of human capabilities. Here are three such capabilities: 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 12. Compare and contrast swimming and land movement in seals and sea lions. (Fiorella) ====================================================================================== ### **Swimming vs. Land Movement in Seals and Sea Lions** **Swimming**: - - **Land Movement**: - - 13. Give the common and scientific names of all the known sea turtle species. Compare and contrast feeding behavior in green turtles vs. loggerheads, giving 3 examples of how they are similar and 3 examples of how they are different. How is the digestive track of each adapted to their specific diets? (Fiorella) ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and loggerheads (Caretta caretta) are both members of the Cheloniidae family and share several similarities in their feeding strategies. Both species forage primarily in shallow waters. This shared habitat preference is likely due to the abundance of food resources, such as seagrasses, algae, and invertebrates, found in these areas. Both consume plant material and animal prey at various life stages. While green sea turtles transition to a predominantly herbivorous diet as adults, both species may consume a mix of plant and animal matter throughout their lives. Loggerheads, for example, may consume jellyfish and vegetation in addition to their carnivorous diet. Both species are foraging generalists, meaning they can adjust their diets based on availability. This flexibility allows them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and food resources. For instance, if seagrasses become scarce, a green sea turtle may increase its consumption of algae or other plant matter. Similarly, a loggerhead may shift its diet to focus on more abundant prey items, such as jellyfish or crustaceans, if its preferred food source becomes less available. Despite these similarities, there are notable differences in the feeding strategies of green sea turtles and loggerheads as they mature**.** Loggerheads develop a more robust jaw structure adapted for crushing and grinding hard-shelled prey, such as crabs, mollusks, and shrimp. They also consume jellyfish and vegetation, demonstrating a more omnivorous diet. In contrast, adult green sea turtles become herbivorous, specializing in grazing on seagrasses, particularly turtle grass. Their serrated jaws are well-suited for tearing and cutting through plant material. The digestive systems of green sea turtles and loggerheads also reflect their dietary differences. While loggerheads have a more generalized digestive tract capable of handling a variety of food items, green sea turtles have evolved a longer intestine to accommodate the slower digestion of plant matter. Additionally, green sea turtles harbor symbiotic bacteria in their stomachs, which help break down the cellulose in plant cell walls. This adaptation is essential for extracting nutrients from their herbivorous diet. ### **Sea Turtle Species and Comparison of Green Turtles vs. Loggerheads** Sea Turtle Species: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Feeding Behavior Comparison: - 1. 2. 3. - 4. 5. 6. 14. In no more than 6-7 sentences, describe the migratory journey of a female loggerhead turtle from the time it was born on the east coast of Florida until the time she returns to a beach to lay her eggs. (Fiorella) ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================== Beginning life as a hatchling on a Florida beach, a female loggerhead enters the ocean and is carried by the Gulf Stream into the North Atlantic Gyre. For several years, she remains in the open ocean, feeding and growing. As she matures, the female loggerhead migrates towards the coastal waters of the southeastern United States, where she begins foraging for prey like crabs and shellfish. Upon reaching adulthood, she migrates thousands of kilometers to return to her natal beach in Florida guided by magnetic cues she imprinted on as a hatchling. Once she arrives at her natal beach, the female loggerhead will lay her own eggs, continuing the cycle of life. ### **Migratory Journey of a Female Loggerhead Turtle** A female loggerhead turtle begins her life when she hatches on a beach in Florida. After emerging from her nest, she enters the **Atlantic Ocean**, where she is carried by the **Gulf Stream** into the North Atlantic Gyre. For several years, she remains in the open ocean, feeding and growing. As she matures, she migrates towards the **coastal waters** of the southeastern United States, where she begins foraging for prey like crabs and shellfish. Upon reaching adulthood, the female migrates thousands of kilometers to return to her natal beach in Florida, guided by **magnetic cues** she imprinted on as a hatchling. She arrives on the beach, where she will lay her own eggs, continuing the cycle. 15. Compare and contrast the feeding behavior of Orcas that feed on baleen whales vs. those that feed on salmonid fish. Describe 3 things they have in common and 3 that are different. (Fiorella) ================================================================================================================================================================================================== Orcas that prey on baleen whales employ a cooperative hunting strategy. Working in packs, these orcas target larger, slower-moving prey like gray or humpback whales, often focusing on calves or weakened adults. They use teamwork and complex hunting tactics, such as blocking, surrounding, and ramming the whale to isolate it and ultimately kill it. In contrast, orcas that feed on salmon engage in more solitary or small-group hunting. These orcas swim through salmon-rich areas, catching fish with sharp, precise movements. Their prey is smaller and more agile than baleen whales, requiring greater precision and speed. Salmon-eating orcas are more localized in their range, often timing their migrations with the seasonal abundance of fish. Despite these differences, both groups of orcas share several similarities in their feeding strategies. Both employ echolocation to detect prey, a technique that allows them to use sound waves to locate and track their targets. Additionally, both groups utilize cooperative hunting to increase their efficiency, demonstrating the importance of social interactions and teamwork in their feeding strategies. Furthermore, both groups exhibit social learning and cultural transmission of hunting techniques, suggesting that orcas can acquire and pass down hunting knowledge through generations. ### **Feeding Behavior of Orcas: Baleen Whale Predators vs. Salmon Predators** **Orcas Feeding on Baleen Whales**: - - - **Orcas Feeding on Salmon**: - - - **Similarities**: 1. 2. 3. **Differences**: 1. 2. 3. 16. Compare and contrast feeding behavior in Right Whales and Humpback Whales. Describe 3 things they have in common and 3 that are different. (Fiorella) ========================================================================================================================================================= One similarity between right whales and humpback whales is their use of baleen plates to filter-feed. They both take in large volumes of water and use their baleen to trap small organisms like plankton and krill while expelling the water. Additionally, both species follow seasonal migration patterns, moving to high-latitude feeding grounds in summer to consume abundant prey and then to low-latitude breeding grounds in winter. Furthermore, both are bulk feeders, consuming enormous amounts of food daily to support their large size. ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= Despite these similarities, right whales and humpback whales employ different feeding methods. Right whales use skim feeding, where they swim slowly with their mouths open at the surface or just below, allowing water and prey to flow through their baleen plates. This passive method is well-suited for calm, plankton-rich waters. In contrast, humpback whales use lunge feeding and often incorporate bubble-net feeding, where they create a net of bubbles to corral and concentrate schools of fish or krill before lunging upward to engulf a massive amount of prey and water. ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================ Another key difference lies in their prey type. Right whales primarily consume plankton and other small organisms, while humpback whales target larger prey, such as small fish. This difference in prey preference is reflected in their feeding strategies. Right whales\' skim feeding is more suited for capturing small, passive organisms in dense concentrations, while humpback whales\' lunge feeding is better adapted for catching swifter, more mobile prey. ======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== Lastly, right whales and humpback whales exhibit distinct behaviors during feeding. Right whales feed slowly at the surface, moving at a steady, slow pace. Humpback whales, on the other hand, are more active feeders, performing energetic lunges at prey. They often dive deep and rise rapidly, using their jaws to engulf prey-filled water in a more aggressive manner. ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== ### **Feeding Behavior in Right Whales vs. Humpback Whales** Both right whales and humpback whales belong to the suborder **Mysticeti** (baleen whales), and they filter-feed on small organisms like plankton and krill. However, their methods of feeding differ significantly in terms of technique, prey type, and behavior. ### **Similarities:** 1. 2. 3. ### **Differences:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - In summary, right whales use **skim feeding** to filter plankton at the surface, while humpback whales use **lunge feeding** and often employ **bubble-net techniques** to catch larger and more mobile prey. Both are filter-feeders with specialized baleen, but their prey selection, feeding speeds, and methods differ significantly. 17. What is the scientific family name for parrot fish, groupers, butterfly fish, damselfish, snappers, and barracuda? Compare and contrast the coloration patterns in the barracuda and grouper families. Name one way they are different and one way they are similar. What same selective force could be driving both similarity and contrast in their coloration? (Cris) ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================ - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **Coloration Patterns: Barracuda vs. Grouper** **Barracuda** (Family **Sphyraenidae**) and **groupers** (Family **Serranidae**) exhibit distinct coloration patterns, but there are also some similarities driven by their predatory lifestyles and habitats. #### **Differences:** - - #### **Similarities:** - ### **Selective Forces Driving Similarity and Contrast:** The **selective force of predation** is likely driving both the similarities and differences in their coloration patterns: - - 18. What is a radula, and which Phylum is it unique to? Describe 4 different ways it has evolved for specialized use. Sofia =========================================================================================================================== Radula is a structure of tiny teeth used for scraping food particles off of a surface and drawing them into the mouth in the phylum mollusca. 1. 2. 3. 4. The radula is a unique, toothed, tongue-like organ found in animals of the Phylum Mollusca. It is composed of chitinous teeth that scrape, cut, or bore into food, facilitating feeding. The radula is used primarily for feeding in most mollusks, except in bivalves, which lack a radula. ### Four Ways the Radula Has Evolved for Specialized Use: 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - ### Summary: The radula is an incredibly versatile structure unique to mollusks, and its evolutionary adaptations reflect the diverse feeding strategies found within this phylum. From scraping algae, drilling shells, tearing flesh, to sifting fine particles, the radula's specialization showcases the ecological diversity of mollusks. 19. Compare and contrast alternation of generation and polymorphism in the phylum Cnidaria. Give specific examples of each using specific species. ================================================================================================================================================== ### Comparison of Alternation of Generations and Polymorphism in Phylum Cnidaria In Cnidarians, alternation of generations and polymorphism are two important life history strategies. Both involve different forms or stages of the organism, but they function in different ways and serve different ecological and reproductive purposes. ### Alternation of Generations: Alternation of generations refers to the alternation between two distinct life stages: the asexual polyp stage and the sexual medusa stage. This occurs in many cnidarian species, especially those in the class Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa. #### Example: Aurelia aurita (Moon Jelly) - - #### Key Features: - - - ### Polymorphism: Polymorphism refers to the presence of different specialized forms (polyps or medusae) within a single colony or species, where each form has a different function. This is common in colonial cnidarians such as Hydrozoa and Anthozoa. #### Example: *Physalia physalis* (Portuguese Man o\' War) - - - - - #### Key Features: - - - ### Comparison: -- -- -- -- -- -- ### Conclusion: While both alternation of generations and polymorphism involve different forms or stages, alternation of generations is about cycling between distinct life stages (polyp and medusa), each with separate reproductive strategies. Polymorphism, on the other hand, is about specialized forms working together within a colony, each performing a specific function. Both strategies allow cnidarians to thrive in diverse marine environments by maximizing reproductive success and ecological efficiency. 20. Define bipartite life cycle. Describe the bipartite life cycle in 3 different species each occurring in a different phylum. Also, describe at least 3 alternative hypotheses that potentially led to the evolution of the bipartite life history strategy in many marine organisms. Sofia ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================= 1. 2. 3. ### **Definition of Bipartite Life Cycle** A **bipartite life cycle** refers to a life history strategy characterized by two distinct phases or stages in the life cycle of an organism. Typically, this involves an **asexual reproductive stage** followed by a **sexual reproductive stage**, allowing for growth, dispersal, and genetic mixing. In many marine organisms, this cycle often alternates between a sessile (attached) stage and a free-swimming stage. ### **Bipartite Life Cycle Examples** #### **1. Coral (Phylum Cnidaria)** - - #### **2. Lobster (Phylum Arthropoda)** - - #### **3. Sea Urchin (Phylum Echinodermata)** - - ### **Alternative Hypotheses for the Evolution of Bipartite Life History Strategy** 1. - 2. - 3. - ### **Conclusion** The bipartite life cycle is a strategic adaptation seen in various marine organisms across multiple phyla. By alternating between distinct stages, organisms can maximize reproductive success, enhance dispersal, and exploit different resources while potentially increasing genetic diversity. The evolution of this life history strategy is influenced by various ecological pressures, highlighting the complex interactions within marine ecosystems. 21. Compare and contrast the feeding behavior and skeletons of Porifera, Echinodermata, and Cnidaria. Sofia =========================================================================================================== Porifera (sponge): This soft, porous specimen represents a very primitive invertebrate. Water containing nutrients, enters pores of sponges. Waste is released through larger openings called \"oscula.\" Cnidaria (coral): Cnidaria are organisms with a central stomach surrounded by stinging cells on the end of finger-like projections. They get their food by catching prey using its stingers (called nematocysts or cnidae) and guiding the food into its gastrovascular cavity. Once the food is inside this cavity, it is digested using enzymes and excited out of the same home through which it was ingested. They have a hydrostatic skeleton, which means that they use internal fluid pressure within their body cavity to maintain their shape and support their movements. Echinodermata (sea cookie, seastar, sea urchin): Have a unique internal skeleton that is composed of ossicles that are made up of calcium carbonate components. They have various digestive processes, but most have a straightforward process of food entering the mouth and then exiting the anus or the mouth once digestion is complete. Echinodermata: when they digest, they bring the stomach out of their mouth, and it comes like a parachute. shell, need protection filter feeding ### **Comparison of Feeding Behavior and Skeletons of Porifera, Echinodermata, and Cnidaria** Porifera (sponges), Echinodermata (e.g., starfish, sea urchins), and Cnidaria (e.g., corals, jellyfish) represent three distinct phyla within the animal kingdom, each exhibiting unique feeding behaviors and skeletal structures. Below is a comparison of these characteristics across the three phyla. ### **1. Porifera (Sponges)** #### **Feeding Behavior:** - - #### **Skeleton:** - - ### **2. Echinodermata (e.g., Starfish, Sea Urchins)** #### **Feeding Behavior:** - - - - #### **Skeleton:** - - ### **3. Cnidaria (e.g., Corals, Jellyfish)** #### **Feeding Behavior:** - - #### **Skeleton:** - - ### **Summary Table** **Feature** **Porifera (Sponges)** **Echinodermata (e.g., Starfish, Sea Urchins)** **Cnidaria (e.g., Corals, Jellyfish)** ------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- **Feeding Behavior** Filter feeders, intracellular digestion Varied (predatory, herbivorous), external digestion in starfish Carnivorous, using cnidocytes and nematocysts **Digestive System** None (intracellular digestion) True digestive cavity Gastrovascular cavity **Skeleton** Spicules and/or spongin Calcareous ossicles (endoskeleton) Hydrostatic skeleton or calcium carbonate (in corals) **Tissue Organization** No true tissues True tissues, organ systems True tissues and organized body plans ### **Conclusion** Porifera, Echinodermata, and Cnidaria exhibit diverse feeding behaviors and skeletal structures that reflect their adaptations to their respective ecological niches. Sponges utilize a simple filter-feeding mechanism with a porous structure, echinoderms display varied feeding strategies supported by an internal skeleton, and cnidarians employ specialized stinging cells for capturing prey while relying on a hydrostatic or calcareous skeleton for support. These differences highlight the evolutionary diversity within the animal kingdom and the various strategies organisms have developed to thrive in aquatic environments. 22. What is a foundation species? Name 4 invert taxa that can act as foundation species. What characteristics do these taxa have in common that allow them to rise to such prominence in marine systems? (Cris) =============================================================================================================================================================================================================== - - 1. a. b. c. d. 2. e. f. g. h. 3. i. j. k. l. 4. m. n. o. p. ### **What is a Foundation Species?** A **foundation species** is a species that plays a crucial role in structuring a community or ecosystem, providing habitat, resources, and ecological functions that support other organisms. Foundation species are often abundant and can have significant impacts on the physical environment, influencing the diversity and abundance of other species in the ecosystem. They create the structural framework of the habitat, contributing to the ecosystem\'s stability and resilience. ### **Four Invertebrate Taxa that Can Act as Foundation Species** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - ### **Common Characteristics of Foundation Species** The invertebrate taxa mentioned above share several characteristics that allow them to rise to prominence in marine systems: 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - ### **Conclusion** Foundation species are integral to marine ecosystems, shaping habitats and supporting diverse communities. The presence of taxa such as corals, oysters, kelp, and sea cucumbers exemplifies how certain invertebrates can influence ecological dynamics and community structure through their structural complexity, abundance, ecosystem engineering capabilities, and vital trophic interactions. 23. What is a trophic cascade? Describe the trophic cascade that regulates plants in southern U.S. salt marshes. How is drought thought to interact with this indirect species interaction? (Cris) ================================================================================================================================================================================================== - - - - - - - - - 24. Explain in detail how echolocation works. Which group of whales uses this superpower? For what functions? How does the other group of whales that don't have this superpower perform the same functions? Sofia ================================================================================================================================================================================================================== Toothed whales produce a variety of sounds by moving air between air-spaces or sinuses in the head. Sounds are reflected or echoed back from objects, and these are thought to be received by an oil filled channel in the lower jaw and conducted to the middle ear of the animal. When swimming normally, the sounds emitted are generally low frequency; the echoes from these sounds provide information about the seafloor, the shorelines, underwater obstacles, water depth, and the presence of other animals underwater. Whales use echolocation for hunting for prey, communicating, and also navigating through underwater obstacles. For Baleen whales, prey is caught through the filter-feeding technique where they open their mouths and catch whatever is in front of them and then filter out the water. ###  ### ### **How Echolocation Works** **Echolocation** is a biological sonar used by several animal species, including certain groups of whales and bats, to navigate and locate prey in their environment. Here's a detailed explanation of how echolocation functions: 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - 5. - ### **Whales That Use Echolocation** The primary group of whales that utilize echolocation is the **toothed whales** (suborder Odontoceti), which includes species such as: - - - - #### **Functions of Echolocation in Toothed Whales:** 1. - 2. - 3. - ### **Whales That Don't Use Echolocation** The other group of whales, known as **baleen whales** (suborder Mysticeti), includes species such as: - - - #### **How Baleen Whales Perform Similar Functions:** 1. - 2. - 3. - ### **Conclusion** Echolocation is a highly specialized adaptation utilized by toothed whales for navigation, prey detection, and social interaction. In contrast, baleen whales use filter feeding and environmental navigation strategies to perform similar functions. While they lack the echolocation abilities of toothed whales, baleen whales have evolved different adaptations that allow them to thrive in their aquatic habitats. Each group\'s strategies highlight the diversity of evolutionary solutions to the challenges of life in the ocean. ### Phonic Lips 1. - 2. - - 3. - ### Other Related Structures - - - ### Conclusion In summary, the phonic lips, along with associated structures in the nasal passages and the lower jaw, play a crucial role in the echolocation abilities of toothed whales. This sophisticated organ system enables them to produce sound waves, focus and direct these sounds, and interpret the echoes that bounce back, facilitating navigation and prey detection in their underwater environment. 25. Compare feeding in sea stars and sea cucumbers. Describe 2 things they have in common and 2 that are different. (Cris) ========================================================================================================================== - 1. 2. - - ### **Comparison of Feeding in Sea Stars and Sea Cucumbers** **Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea)** and **Sea Cucumbers (Class Holothuroidea)** are both echinoderms, but they exhibit different feeding strategies and mechanisms. Below is a comparison highlighting their similarities and differences. ### **Commonalities** 1. - 2. - ### **Differences** 1. - - - - 2. - - - - ### **Summary** In summary, sea stars and sea cucumbers share common echinoderm traits and a benthic lifestyle but differ significantly in their feeding mechanisms and digestive systems. Sea stars are active predators that use their tube feet and external digestion to consume prey, while sea cucumbers are detritivores that filter-feed on sediment and organic matter from the ocean floor. These adaptations highlight the diverse feeding strategies that echinoderms employ to thrive in their marine environments. 26. How is it that we are more closely related to blob-like sea squirts than highly complex insects? ==================================================================================================== - - 27. Do you think crustaceans or insects have been more successful over earth's history? Defend your answer in 4-5 sentences. ============================================================================================================================ - - - - - - 28. Describe thermoregulation in sea otters, great white sharks, walruses, blue whales, green turtles, and Nassau groupers. Which of these species can tolerate the greatest range of temperatures, and why is that the case? ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================= **Sea Otters:** - - - **Great White Sharks:** - - - **Walruses:** - - - **Blue Whales:** - - - **Green Turtles:** - - - **Nassau Groupers:** - - - **Conclusion:** **Blue whales demonstrate the greatest temperature tolerance among the listed species, primarily due to their thick blubber layer and ability to migrate between diverse climates. Other species, like sea otters and walruses, have adaptations such as fur and blubber to cope with colder environments, but their temperature tolerance is more limited. Green turtles and Nassau groupers, being ectothermic, are restricted to warmer waters.** - ### **Thermoregulation in Sea Otters, Great White Sharks, Walruses, Blue Whales, Green Turtles, and Nassau Groupers** - - - - - - 29. Describe 5 different functional roles that the dorsal fin in fish can play and how the morphology of that fin is linked to a particular function. (Cris) ============================================================================================================================================================ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ### **Five Functional Roles of the Dorsal Fin in Fish and Its Morphology** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 30. In the paper, "Why whales are big but not bigger: Physiological drivers and ecological limits in the age of ocean giants," what is the main driver limiting rorqual whale size? List and describe two of the methods scientists used to determine this. =========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== as whales get larger, the energy gained per lunge decreases, while the energy costs continue to rise In the paper "Why whales are big but not bigger: Physiological drivers and ecological limits in the age of ocean giants," the main driver limiting rorqual whale size is **the balance between the energy gained from feeding and the energy expended while foraging**. This balance becomes less favorable as whale size increases due to the constraints on the availability of prey and the energetic costs associated with their foraging behavior, particularly lunge feeding. Larger whales require more energy to sustain their body size, but as they grow, the efficiency of their foraging behavior diminishes. our analyses suggest that large rorquals are not limited by the size and density of krill patches at the productive apex of their foraging seasons. How long these dense krill patches are available during the summer feeding season at higher latitudes, or throughout the rest of the year (29), may ultimately determine the amount of lipid re- serves that can be used to fuel ocean basin-- scale migrations as well as reproductive output at lower latitudes (30, 31). The size of the largest animals does not seem to be limited by phys- iology (5), but rather is limited by prey avail 1. 2. a. **31. In the paper "Are the ghosts of nature's past haunting ecology today?", what were the three explanations used to examine expansion of large consumers into non-typical habitats? Meghan** =============================================================================================================================================================================================== 1. - 2. 32. In the paper "Surviving in a Marine Desert: The Sponge Loop Retains Resources Within Coral Reefs," explain the key factors that contribute to the sponge loop and its role in maintaining resource retention within coral reef ecosystem. Meghan ==================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== 1. 2. 3. - 1. a. 2. 3. b. 4. c. Background to understand this question: This paper was testing whether mussel beds and seaweed canopies are alternate community stable states or disturbance patch mosaics where one is dominating (mussel beds + barnacles dominate in large disturbances and smaller disturbances are dominated by seaweed). Alternate stable state hypothesis: communities can exist in more than one stable state that, once established, can persist indefinitely over many generations of the organisms making up the community. In this situation, the community that dominates a habitat following a disturbance is stochastic, the product of propagule availability when the space was made available and is maintained by positive feedbacks. Alternate community stable states are when more than one distinctive and persistent type of community can occur in a given habitat. To test the hypothesis, researchers established **eight study sites** in each habitat type (Ascophyllum canopy and mussel beds) along a 10-km section of the estuary. They replicated an earlier experiment by **clearing patches of different sizes**(1 x 1 m and 3 x 3 m) in each habitat, removing all plants and sessile animals to simulate severe natural disturbances. They used consumer exclusion cages to study the role of **snails and crabs** (primary consumers) in the recovery of these bare spaces. The study monitored the experiment over several years, using **photographic methods** to assess changes in surface cover and space occupancy in both cleared and unmanipulated control quadrats. To quantify environmental factors like **water flow**, they deployed **calcium sulfate blocks** to estimate flow speed, and they tracked **barnacle recruitment** to measure benthic species recruitment. They also used a **mussel tethering experiment** to assess relative predation pressure by crabs at different sites. 34. Compare the hypothesized ecological effects of large sharks like tiger sharks and hammerhead sharks vs smaller sharks like the grey reef sharks in "The Ecological Role of Sharks on Coral Reefs". What scientific approach was used to get this hypothesis? Were the authors' able to find empirical evidence to support this hypothesis? Meghan ===================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================== **10/15 answer:** **Overall:** 1. Large sharks: Occupy highest trophic level on coral reefs and consume other prey including sharks, mammals, and turtles. large-scale migrations of apex sharks results in nutrient flux among coastal and oceanic ecosystems. Through opportunistic feeding, apex and mesopredatory sharks remove weak and diseased individuals, potentially reducing the incidence of disease by maintaining low densities of prey populations. **Theoretically, high shark abundance might lead to reduced mesopredator abundance and allow herbivorous fish to escape predation and become more abundant and enhance coral resilience by consuming fleshy macroalgae that outcompete corals for space.** Apex sharks might play an important role as facultative scavengers consuming dead carcasses, which can promote stability in food webs. Have greater impact on nutrient transfer among ecosystems because they move among coastal ecosystems Smaller sharks: Mesopredators vulnerable to predation by apex sharks. These sharks are reef associated and depend on the reef for prey. Within coral reef ecosystems, the small-scale movement of reef-associated mesopredatory sharks provides nutrient cycling between adjacent pelagic and reef habitats. They eat herbivores so an increase in mesopredators would result in a decrease in herbivores. They also remove weak and diseased individuals**. Mesopredatory sharks might have the potential to exert top-down control of invasive species such as lionfish.** Mesopredatory sharks can cause habitat disturbance by damaging individual corals while foraging for prey in reef frameworks. They have a mutualistic relationship with cleaner fish that eat the ectoparasites off them. 2\) **Meta analysis** 3\) **No empirical evidence**: "Despite considerable speculation over the ability of sharks to drive trophic cascades that benefit coral health, most empirical evidence finds no such pattern, and where such trends are evident they remain open to alternative interpretations." 35. Referring to the paper "The topicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts", describe two of the impacts climate change will have on the interaction between temperate macroalgae and tropical herbivorous fish? Meghan ============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================ 1. 2. 36. What are the main climate change drivers affecting marine foundation species, and how do these drivers interact with other anthropogenic stressors? Meghan ============================================================================================================================================================== **Source: [[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37683273/]](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37683273/)** Marine foundation species include corals, kelps, seagrasses, salt marsh plants, mangroves, and bivalves. ### Climate Change Drivers: 1. - - - 2. - 3. - 4. - ### Interaction with Other Anthropogenic Stressors: Direct effects of climate change on foundation species are exacerbated by co-occurring anthropogenic stressors, including coastal development and seawalls, which increase habitat homogenization and coastal squeeze during sea level rise; overfishing of predators, which can increase herbivory from sea urchins or fishes; and pollution and eutrophication, which reduce water quality, compromising the health of foundation species and facilitating weedy species. - - -