Major Psychological Theories PDF

Psychoanalytic School of psychology...  The initial founder of the psychoanalytic school was Sigmund Freud, a physician/neurologist from Austria  Psychoanalysis formed more than a basis of human understanding; it is also viewed as a method or as a form of psychotherapy  Psychoanalysis...

Psychoanalytic School of psychology...  The initial founder of the psychoanalytic school was Sigmund Freud, a physician/neurologist from Austria  Psychoanalysis formed more than a basis of human understanding; it is also viewed as a method or as a form of psychotherapy  Psychoanalysis views many human problems as a result of conflict between what is seen as ‘acceptable behaviour’ and more ‘unacceptable impulses’ (often aggressive or sexual in nature)  Freud’s approach has been severely criticized for being ‘less than scientific’ and for what may be seen as an emphasis on the darker side of human nature The Behaviourist perspective....  The Behaviourist perspective was founded by John B Watson (1913); he was influenced by the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (‘behavioural conditioning’)  The behaviourist perspective emphasizes the importance of objective, observable influences on behaviour (vs. introspectionist views on internal process)  That is, overt behaviours are explained in terms of their relationship with environmental stimuli (i.e. ‘stimulus-response’ connections) Major Theories of Psychology Glynnis A Lieb From Behaviourism to the Humanist perspective....  BF Skinner (1904-1990) was one of the most influential behaviourists of the 20th century  His research focused on using basic learning principles (conditioning) in order to shape the behaviour of both animals and humans  Therapies have used the behaviourist approach to treat a number of well-defined problems, such as treatment for phobias and treatment for alcoholism  Although the psychoanalytic and behaviourist approaches dominated North American psychology in the early 1900’s, by the 1950’s the Humanist perspective came to predominate Characteristics of the Humanistic perspective....  Largely as a reaction to the behaviourist perspective, the humanistic approach emphasizes ‘free will’, i.e. The fact that many behaviours are voluntarily chosen by the individual (rather than programmed or conditioned by the environment)  Two key players in the humanistic movement were Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow  Their thinking introduced the notion of self-actualization, i.e. all individuals naturally strive to develop to their highest levels of capability Cognitive psychology’s return to thought processing....  The latter part of the twentieth century was strongly influenced by the cognitive perspective  This special field emphasizes the processing of ‘psychological information’ (thoughts, perceptions, data and information) via the central nervous system  Cognitive psychologists look at the various stages involved in information processing:  Gather information  Encode information  Store information  Special processes examined in cognitive psychology include: (1) perception, (2) memory, (3) imagery, (4) concept formation, (5) problem-solving, (6) reasoning, (7) decision-making, and (8) language The Biopsychological perspective....  With the 21st century scientists have expanded their consideration of biological factors in almost all areas of psychology  Here, the focus is on the impact of genetics and the biological/biochemical processes involved in the brain and nervous system  The evolutionary perspective in psychology looks at Darwin’s notion of ‘natural selection’, i.e. the notion that humans are adaptive in their behaviours and mental processes... that favourable adaptations lead to ‘natural selection’ Sociocultural perspective in psychology....  The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the important influence of social and cultural factors in determining behaviours  Important examples of sociocultural factors are:  Ethnicity  Religion  Occupation/profession  Socio-economic class  In combination, such factors have a tremendous psychological impact on mental processes and human behaviours Contemporary perspectives in psychology....  While certain perspectives have been pretty much relegated to psychology’s historical past – e.g. structuralism and functionalism....  Modern-day psychology has seen the retention and further development of seven major perspectives:  Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic  Behaviouristic  Humanistic  Cognitive  Neuroscientific/Biopsychological  Evolutionary  Sociocultural The Biopsychosocial model....  Because human behaviours and mental processes are often very complex, explanatory models forwarded by psychology are also complex and multi-layered  That is why most modern-day psychologists follow more than one perspective in their efforts to explain and to modify human behaviours  The Biopsychological Model is an example of a current integrative or unifying theory  This model views  (1) biological processes (e.g. genetics, the nervous system, evolution),  (2) psychological factors (learning, thinking, personality, emotion), and  (3) social forces (family, school, culture, social class) as inter- related and inseparable influences Basic vs. Applied Research  Basic Research  Research conducted in order to advance scientific knowledge (as a priority), rather than to address practical needs in the wider world  Basic research is usually carried out in universities or research labs by psychologists interested in advancing general scientific understanding  The primary focus of basic research is that of meeting the first three goals of psychology: o Description o Explanation o Prediction Basic and Applied research (continued)....  Applied Research  Designed to address practical, real-life problems  Can be conducted either outside or inside the research lab  Basic and applied research often build on each other, i.e. the ultimate aim of all research is to discover facts and knowledge that will benefit human kind Ethical Guidelines in Scientific Procedures...  In the scheme of things, scientific discovery involves looking at many ideas and pieces of information over time... In order to come up with answers and explanations about the ‘whole picture’  The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) has developed a number of principles in order to promote ethics and excellence in research: 1. Respect the dignity of all people (‘participants’ or ‘subjects’) 2. Provide responsible caring 3. Demonstrate integrity in relationships 4. Be responsible to society Respecting the rights of human participants....  Informed Consent refers to the duty to explain to participants:  The nature of the study  Any physical risks, discomfort, or emotions that may result  That they are free to refuse or to withdraw from the experiment (even after the study has started)  CPA guidelines also emphasize that any identifying information or details about participants must remain confidential and not compromise participants’ privacy Ethical practice in institutional research....  In colleges, universities and other institutions where research is conducted, it is important that a research ethics board reviews and approves any study that uses human participants  Canadian agencies that sponsor or fund research usually have their own set of ethical standards and procedures  Researchers receiving funds must meet the ethical rules and requirements of such agencies  As with human research, all animal studies must be also be approved by an institutional animal care committee  The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) provides clear guidelines for the use of animals in research, testing, and in teaching Protecting animal rights....  Animals (mostly rats and mice) are used in about 7 to 8 percent of psychological research  Nevertheless, such experiments have made significant contributions to almost every area of psychology, including the brain and nervous system; health and stress; sensation and perception; sleep; learning; memory; and emotion  Although there is a lot of concern and controversy concerning the use of animals in research, many researchers look for new and better ways to protect their animal subjects  For example, the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) asks researchers to test their proposals against the three Rs : (1) reduce the number of animals used; (2) replace animal models with other types of research when possible; and (3) refine experiments in order that animal discomfort/suffering is minimized Safety in Psychotherapy Clients....  In general, the psychologist has a primary obligation to maintain the privacy of patients... including their personal information and data, but also the disclosures they make in sessions  Hence, all notes and files must be kept in locked cabinets, with records only being made available to authorized staff and to those who the client authorizes to share such information (e.g. referral source, family physician, etc)  When a client is deemed at risk to themselves or to others (e.g. suicidal or homicidal), then the issue of safety must take precedence.... i.e., the concern must be reported to family, police, ambulance, etc, in order to maintain safety  Clinicians who violate the ethical rules and guidelines of their professional associations risk sanctions and loss of license to practice  The need for self-examination in psychology....  Although psychology (as a discipline and as a profession) has done a great deal to improve the quality of life for many...  Psychology has also caused untold harm in forwarding theories and explanations that have been inaccurate or wrong  As an example, the theory that mothers cause schizophrenia in their children by being cold and aloof was forwarded by Fromm-Reichmann  This theory was unfounded and over the years caused a great deal of stress and guilt for many mothers and their families  Another example is the surgical procedure referred to as ‘lobotomy’, where a sharp object was inserted into the brain in order to cut the connecting tissue (corpus callosum) between the two cerebral hemispheres  While the procedure induced compliance and passivity in patients, in many cases it also resulted in permanent brain damage Research Methods  In the discipline of psychology there are four major types of research that are used: 1. Experimental research 2. Descriptive research 3. Correlational research 4. Biological research  Because each methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, many psychologists use a variety of methods in order to study a single problem  When multiple methods are used and there is convergence in findings, the overall accuracy of findings is improved  Experimenter and participant bias....  Researchers may unknowingly let their own beliefs and expectations affect subject responses  For example, an experimenter may be overly enthusiastic when providing a certain description or set of instructions to subjects, somehow conveying to them expectations concerning their potential responses  These behaviours can effectively destroy the validity or meaning of experiment results  For this reason, objective methods of data-gathering are encouraged, e.g. use computers to present stimuli, to record responses Social Desirability Response....  Sample bias is usually minimized by following the practice of random assignment ... i.e., ensuring that each participant is equally likely to be assigned to either the experimental group or to the control group  In many cases participants want to present themselves in a positive light... this is referred to as the social desirability response  In some cases (usually in research involving controversial issues like drinking, drugging, cheating, etc) participants try to create an unfavourable impression  In order to control for such efforts at misleading the researcher, respondents are allowed to answer anonymously