Ling 01 Pointers to Review PDF

Ling 01 Pointers to Review: ​ Countable Noun: Names things that can be counted (e.g., cat, ​ Celce-Murcia Grammar Lesson...

Ling 01 Pointers to Review: ​ Countable Noun: Names things that can be counted (e.g., cat, ​ Celce-Murcia Grammar Lesson car, pencil). ​ 8 Parts of Speech ​ Uncountable Noun: Names things that cannot be counted (e.g., ​ Phrases and Clauses water, sugar, information). ​ Sentence According to Use ​ Collective Noun: Names a group (e.g., team, family, flock). ​ Sentence Patterns ​ Mass Noun: Refers to uncountable things that are measured ​ Subject-Verb Agreement (e.g., rice, milk, sand). ​ Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement ​ Common Usage Problems 2. Pronoun ​ Connotative vs Denotative ​ Figurative and Idiomatic Language Definition: A pronoun is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.​ ​ Pragmatics and Language Registers Types: ​ Worksheet Analysis ​ Personal Pronoun: Refers to specific persons or things.​ Celce-Murcia Grammar Lesson Point of View (POV): ○​ First Person: I, me, we, us (speaker’s perspective). ○​ Second Person: You (listener’s perspective). ○​ Third Person: He, she, it, they, them (about others). ​ Possessive Pronoun: Shows ownership (e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs). ​ Reflexive Pronoun: Refers back to the subject (e.g., myself, yourself, himself). ​ Demonstrative Pronoun: Points to specific things (e.g., this, that, these, those). ​ Interrogative Pronoun: Used in questions (e.g., who, whom, 8 Parts of Speech whose, which, what). ​ Relative Pronoun: Introduces a dependent clause (e.g., who, 1. Noun whom, whose, which, that). ​ Indefinite Pronoun: Refers to non-specific things (e.g., Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.​ someone, nobody, anything). Types: 3. Verb ​ Proper Noun: Specific names of people, places, or organizations (e.g., Maria, Manila, Google). Definition: A verb expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being.​ ​ Common Noun: General names of people, places, or things Types: (e.g., city, teacher, book). ​ Abstract Noun: Names an idea, quality, or state (e.g., love, ​ Action Verb: Describes an action (e.g., run, jump, write). freedom, anger). ​ Linking Verb: Connects the subject to a subject complement ​ Concrete Noun: Names something perceivable by the senses (e.g., am, is, are, seem). (e.g., flower, chair, apple). ​ Auxiliary Verb (Helping Verb): Helps the main verb (e.g., will, can, have, do).  ​ Modal Verb: Expresses necessity or possibility (e.g., might, ​ Superlative Adjective: Compares more than two things (e.g., Phrases and Clauses should, could). tallest, biggest, fastest). ​ Transitive Verb: Requires a direct object (e.g., He wrote a Phrases letter.). 5. Adverb ​ Intransitive Verb: Does not require a direct object (e.g., She Definition: A group of words that work together but do not have both a sleeps.). Definition: An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.​ subject and a predicate.​ Types: Types of Phrases: 4. Adjective ​ Adverb of Manner: Describes how something happens (e.g., 1.​ Noun Phrase: Acts as a noun in a sentence. Definition: An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun.​ quickly, softly, happily). ○​ Example: The bright red car parked outside (subject). Order of Adjectives: When multiple adjectives are used, follow this ​ Adverb of Time: Describes when something happens (e.g., 2.​ Verb Phrase: Contains a main verb and its auxiliaries. sequence: yesterday, now, later). ○​ Example: is running fast. ​ Adverb of Place: Describes where something happens (e.g., 3.​ Adjective Phrase: Modifies a noun or pronoun. 1.​ Quantity or Number (e.g., three, many, several) here, there, everywhere). ○​ Example: very beautiful and charming. 2.​ Quality or Opinion (e.g., beautiful, tasty, interesting) ​ Adverb of Frequency: Describes how often something 4.​ Adverb Phrase: Modifies a verb, adjective, or another 3.​ Size (e.g., big, small, tall) happens (e.g., always, often, sometimes). adverb. 4.​ Age (e.g., old, young, new) ​ Adverb of Degree: Describes the extent of an action (e.g., ○​ Example: with great precision. 5.​ Shape (e.g., round, square, flat) very, quite, too). 5.​ Prepositional Phrase: Begins with a preposition and ends 6.​ Color (e.g., red, blue, golden) with a noun or pronoun. 7.​ Origin (e.g., Filipino, American, Chinese) 6. Preposition ○​ Example: on the table. 8.​ Material (e.g., wooden, plastic, silk) 6.​ Infinitive Phrase: Begins with "to" followed by the base form 9.​ Purpose (e.g., writing [as in "writing desk"], sleeping [as in Definition: A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or of a verb. "sleeping bag"])​ pronoun and another word in a sentence.​ ○​ Example: to learn English fluently. Example: Three beautiful small old round golden Chinese Examples: in, on, at, by, with, about, for, to, into, over. 7.​ Gerund Phrase: Begins with a gerund (verb ending in -ing) wooden writing desks. and acts as a noun. 7. Conjunction ○​ Example: Swimming in the pool is fun. Types: 8.​ Participial Phrase: Begins with a participle (present or past) Definition: A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.​ and functions as an adjective. ​ Descriptive Adjective: Describes qualities (e.g., beautiful, red, Types: ○​ Example: Running late for class, she hurried. tall). ​ Quantitative Adjective: Shows quantity (e.g., few, many, ​ Coordinating Conjunctions: Connects words or phrases of Clauses several). equal importance (e.g., and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). ​ Demonstrative Adjective: Points out specific things (e.g., this, ​ Subordinating Conjunctions: Connects dependent and Definition: A group of words that contains both a subject and a that, these, those). independent clauses (e.g., because, although, since, if). predicate.​ ​ Possessive Adjective: Shows ownership (e.g., my, your, his, ​ Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs (e.g., either…or, Types of Clauses: her, their). neither…nor, not only…but also). ​ Interrogative Adjective: Used in questions (e.g., which, what, 1.​ Independent Clause: Can stand alone as a complete sentence. whose). 8. Interjection ○​ Example: I enjoy reading books. ​ Comparative Adjective: Compares two things (e.g., taller, 2.​ Dependent (Subordinate) Clause: Cannot stand alone and bigger, faster). Definition: An interjection expresses strong emotion or sudden feeling.​ depends on an independent clause. Examples: Oh! Wow! Oops! Hurray! Alas! ○​ Example: because it is relaxing. Subtypes of Dependent Clauses: ​ Example: Dad gave us a vacation gift. 5. Singular Nouns That Appear Plural ○​ Subject (S): Dad ​ Noun Clause: Functions as a noun. ○​ Transitive Verb (TV): gave ​ Words like scissors, trousers, jeans, binoculars, tongs take ○​ Example: What she said was surprising. ○​ Indirect Object (IO): us plural verbs. ​ Adjective (Relative) Clause: Modifies a noun or pronoun. ○​ Direct Object (DO): a vacation gift ○​ Example: The scissors are sharp. ○​ Example: The book that I borrowed is amazing. ​ Use "a pair of" to make them singular. ​ Adverb Clause: Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. 5. Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement (S – ○​ Example: A pair of scissors is missing. ○​ Example: I will go if it doesn’t rain. TV – DO – OC) 6. Indefinite Pronouns Sentence Patterns ​ Definition: The object complement provides more information about the direct object. ​ Always Singular: each, everyone, someone, nobody, anybody, 1. Subject + Linking Verb + Complement (S – LV – C) ​ Example: The teacher deemed the library an important everyone, etc. resource. ○​ Example: Each student is responsible for their work. ​ Definition: The complement provides additional information ○​ Subject (S): The teacher ​ Always Plural: few, many, several, both, others. about the subject and follows a linking verb. ○​ Transitive Verb (TV): deemed ○​ Example: Several students are missing. ​ Example: The Christmas party was exciting. ○​ Direct Object (DO): the library ​ Singular or Plural Based on Context: all, none, some, most, ○​ Subject (S): The Christmas party ○​ Object Complement (OC): an important resource etc. ○​ Linking Verb (LV): was ○​ Example (Singular): None of the water is clean. ○​ Complement (C): exciting Subject-Verb Agreement ○​ Example (Plural): None of the chairs are broken. 2. Subject + Intransitive Verb (S – IV) 1. "A Number of" vs. "The Number of" 7. Fractions and Percentages ​ Definition: The verb does not require an object to complete its ​ "A number of" refers to an unspecified plural quantity and ​ The verb agrees with the noun following "of." meaning. takes a plural verb. ○​ Example (Singular): Two-thirds of the cake is eaten. ​ Example: Students participate. ○​ Example: A number of students are present. ○​ Example (Plural): Two-thirds of the cookies are ○​ Subject (S): Students ​ "The number of" refers to a specific singular total and takes a gone. ○​ Intransitive Verb (IV): participate singular verb. ○​ Example: The number of attendees is impressive. 8. Subjects with Prepositional Phrases 3. Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object (S – TV – DO) 3. Collective Nouns ​ The verb agrees with the main subject, not the object of the ​ Definition: The verb transfers the action to a direct object. preposition. ​ Example: Meigan read a novel. ​ Singular Verb: When the group acts as a single unit. ○​ Example: The bouquet of flowers smells lovely. ○​ Subject (S): Meigan ○​ Example: The team is winning the game. ○​ Example: The books on the table are new. ○​ Transitive Verb (TV): read ​ Plural Verb: When the group’s members act individually. ○​ Example: The team are arguing about their strategies. 9. Subjects Starting with "There" or "Here" ○​ Direct Object (DO): a novel 4. Plural Nouns That Are Singular in Meaning ​ The verb agrees with the noun following "there" or "here." 4. Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (S – TV ○​ Example (Singular): There is a cat on the roof. – IO – DO) ​ Words like news, mathematics, physics, economics take ○​ Example (Plural): Here are the books you requested. ​ Definition: The verb transfers the action to both an indirect singular verbs. ○​ Example: Mathematics is an interesting subject. 10. Amounts and Quantities object (recipient) and a direct object.  ​ When considered as a single unit, use a singular verb. ○​ Example: ○​ Example: Each student must bring his or her ○​ Example: Fifty dollars is enough for the meal. ​ The students submitted their assignments. materials. ​ When referring to individual items, use a plural verb. ○​ Example: Each student must bring their materials. ○​ Example: Fifty dollars were found on the floor. 2. Compound Antecedents 6. Antecedents with Modifiers 11. Relative Pronouns (Who, Which, That) ​ Joined by "and": Use a plural pronoun. ○​ Example: ​ The pronoun must match the true antecedent, not the ​ The verb agrees with the antecedent (the noun it refers to). ​ Jack and Jill finished their project. intervening modifier. ○​ Example: She is one of the students who study hard. ​ Joined by "or" or "nor": The pronoun agrees with the ○​ Example: ○​ Example: He is the only one who studies regularly. closer antecedent. ​ The box of chocolates has lost its lid. ○​ Examples: 12. Titles of Works ​ Either Mark or James will present his report. 7. Collective Antecedents Represented as Units ​ Neither the boys nor Anna forgot her ​ Titles of books, movies, or other works are singular. homework. ​ If the antecedent is a unit of measurement or time, use a ○​ Example: "The Chronicles of Narnia" is a classic. singular pronoun. 3. Collective Nouns ○​ Example: Twenty dollars lost its value over time. 13. Phrases Like "Each of," "Every One of" ​ Use a singular pronoun when the group is seen as a single 8. Relative Pronouns (Who, Which, That) ​ These take singular verbs. unit. ○​ Example: Each of the options is valid. ○​ Example: The jury gave its verdict. ​ The verb and pronoun must agree with the antecedent that the ​ Use a plural pronoun when members of the group are acting relative pronoun replaces. 14. Confusing Common Nouns individually. ○​ Examples: ○​ Example: The jury argued among themselves. ​ She is the one who always finishes her work ​ Scissors, trousers, glasses: Always plural unless preceded by on time. "a pair of." 4. Indefinite Pronouns ​ This is the team that won its last match. ○​ Examples: ​ The trousers are clean. ​ Always Singular: each, every, someone, anyone, everybody, Common Errors and Corrections ​ A pair of trousers is on the rack. nobody, one, another, etc. ​ Civics, news, mathematics, physics, economics: Singular in ○​ Example: Everyone must do his or her best. 1.​ Incorrect: Each of the players must bring their uniform.​ usage. ​ Always Plural: both, few, several, many. Correct: Each of the players must bring his or her uniform.​ ○​ Example: Physics is fascinating. ○​ Example: Both of the boys brought their bikes. ​ Singular or Plural Based on Context: all, some, none, most, 2.​ Incorrect: The committee made their decision.​ Pronoun Antecedent Agreement any. Correct: The committee made its decision.​ ○​ Examples: 1. Singular and Plural Agreement 3.​ Incorrect: Neither Sam nor his friends brought his lunch.​ ​ All of the cake was eaten. It was delicious. ​ All of the students finished their Correct: Neither Sam nor his friends brought their lunch. ​ Singular antecedents require singular pronouns. assignments. ○​ Example: Connotative vs Denotative: ​ The student forgot his notebook. 5. Singular Antecedents Referring to People of Unknown Gender ​ The teacher shared her experience. 1. Word: Dove ​ Plural antecedents require plural pronouns. ​ Use he or she (formal) or a singular they (modern usage).  ​ Denotative Meaning: A type of bird, typically white, in the ​ Connotative Meaning: Power, royalty, or honor. 12. Word: Gold pigeon family. ○​ Example: "She claimed the crown." (connotative: ​ Connotative Meaning: A symbol of peace, purity, or love. achieved victory or leadership) ​ Denotative Meaning: A yellow metallic element, highly valued. 2. Word: Fire 7. Word: Rose ​ Connotative Meaning: Wealth, success, or excellence. ○​ Example: "She has a heart of gold." (connotative: ​ Denotative Meaning: Combustion that produces heat and ​ Denotative Meaning: A type of fragrant flowering plant. kindness or generosity) light. ​ Connotative Meaning: Love, romance, or beauty. ​ Connotative Meaning: Passion, danger, destruction, or strong ○​ Example: "A rose by any other name would smell as Worksheet Analysis: emotions. sweet." (connotative: beauty and love) ○​ Example: "She has a fire in her heart." (connotative: 1. Clear and Realistic Context passion) 8. Word: Wall ​ Definition: Tasks should occur in relatable and practical ​ Denotative Meaning: A physical structure that divides areas. settings that mirror real-life scenarios. 3. Word: Heart ​ Connotative Meaning: Emotional or psychological barriers. ​ Purpose: Helps learners see how grammar functions in ​ Denotative Meaning: A muscular organ that pumps blood ○​ Example: "He built a wall around his heart." authentic communication. through the body. (connotative: emotional defensiveness) ​ Example: Writing an email to a friend using proper tense and ​ Connotative Meaning: Love, affection, or emotion. pronouns. ○​ Example: "You broke my heart." (connotative: 9. Word: Light 2. Realistic Use or Processing of Language emotional pain) ​ Denotative Meaning: Natural or artificial illumination. ​ Definition: Grammar tasks should involve natural language 4. Word: Child ​ Connotative Meaning: Hope, clarity, or enlightenment. use instead of isolated drills. ○​ Example: "She found light in the darkness." ​ Purpose: Encourages fluency and practical application of ​ Denotative Meaning: A young human being below the age of (connotative: hope in difficult times) grammar. puberty. ​ Example: Role-playing a situation (e.g., ordering food at a ​ Connotative Meaning: Innocence, playfulness, or 10. Word: Dog restaurant) to practice modal verbs like can, could, may. vulnerability. ○​ Example: "She has a childlike wonder." (connotative: ​ Denotative Meaning: A domesticated animal, often kept as a 3. Meaning and Meaningfulness of Grammar Stressed innocence) pet. ​ Connotative Meaning: Loyalty, companionship, or ​ Definition: Tasks should emphasize the purpose and meaning 5. Word: Snake (negatively) a despicable person. behind grammar rules, not just form. ○​ Example: "He’s such a loyal dog." (connotative: loyal ​ Purpose: Ensures learners understand why the grammar is ​ Denotative Meaning: A legless, carnivorous reptile. friend) used, improving retention. ​ Connotative Meaning: Betrayal, danger, or deceit. ​ Example: Identifying how verb tenses convey time ○​ Example: "He’s a snake in the grass." (connotative: 11. Word: Shadow relationships in storytelling. deceitful person) ​ Denotative Meaning: A dark area where light is blocked. 4. Personalization 6. Word: Crown ​ Connotative Meaning: Mystery, fear, or an ominous presence. ​ Definition: Activities should allow learners to relate grammar ​ Denotative Meaning: A ceremonial headdress worn by a ○​ Example: "He lives in the shadow of his brother’s use to their own lives, interests, or experiences. monarch. success." (connotative: overshadowed or unnoticed)  ​ Purpose: Makes grammar more engaging and relevant. ​ Example: Writing sentences about their daily routine to practice adverbs of frequency (e.g., always, sometimes). 5. Open-Ended Exercises ​ Definition: Tasks that allow multiple correct answers, encouraging creativity and deeper thinking. ​ Purpose: Reduces the mechanical aspect of grammar practice. ​ Example: Writing a paragraph describing their dream vacation, using adjectives and varied sentence structures. 6. Task-Based ​ Definition: Focus on completing a specific task that requires grammar for successful communication. ​ Purpose: Makes grammar functional and purposeful. ​ Example: Planning a schedule for an event using correct time expressions (e.g., at 3 PM, after lunch). 7. Integrated Skills ​ Definition: Combine grammar with other language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening). ​ Purpose: Develops holistic language proficiency. ​ Example: Reading a short story to identify past tense verbs, then writing an alternate ending. 8. Motivation ​ Definition: Tasks should be interesting, fun, and relevant to maintain learners’ interest. ​ Purpose: Enhances engagement and encourages active participation. ​ Example: Playing a grammar-based game like sentence-building with dice or card prompts. Statistics is the process of collecting,organizing, summarizing, Mean: is the average of a set of data points. For example, consider the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): A statement that contradicts the null presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to create a valid conclusion test scores of a class: 85, 92, 78, 89, and 96. The mean score is (85 + 92 hypothesis, suggesting there is a significant difference or effect in the and rational decisions. + 78 + 89 + 96) / 5 = 88. population. a. Collection of Data – the process of data gathering, such as interview, Median: is the middle value in a data set when arranged in ascending questionnaires, tests, observations, registrations, and experiments. order. If we add another student who scored 67, the median becomes 89. This statistic is less affected by outliers. Qualitative variable – contains categorical or qualitative responses. It b. Presentation of Data – organizing of data through tabular, graphical, refers to the characteristics or attributes of the sample such as civil or textual presentation. Mode: is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset. In the status, religious affiliations, gender original dataset, the mode is 85. c. Analysis of Data – the process of extracting from the given data Quantitative variable – contains numerical responses representing an relevant and noteworthy information using statistical techniques and amount or quantity such as height, weight, number of children. methods Descriptive Statistics a. Discrete – values obtained by counting, e.g., births, students in the d. Interpretation of Data – drawing of conclusions or inferences from class the analyzed data. 2. Measures of Dispersion b. Continuous – values obtained by measurement, e.g., age, height Range: The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a dataset. For our test scores, the range is 96–78 = 18. Independent variables are the cause, e.g., test scores , while dependent Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with variables are the consequence, e.g., number of hours spent for studying describing the characteristics and properties of a group of persons, Variance: A measure of how data points deviate from the mean. It places or things that based on confirmable facts. It organizes the quantifies the spread of data. Calculating the variance for our test NOMINAL description, presentation and interpretation of data gathered. scores is beyond the scope of this blog, but it’s an essential concept in data analysis. The lowest level of measurement, where variables are categorized and Descriptive statistics mostly focus on the central tendency, variability, labeled with descriptive names. The variables are not arranged in order and distribution of sample data. Central tendency means the estimate of Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance. It provides a more of importance or value. the characteristics, a typical element of a sample or population. It interpretable measure of data dispersion. A smaller standard deviation includes descriptive statistics such as mean, median, and mode. indicates less spread. EXAMPLES: Inferential Statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences City of birth from the population by obtaining information from the sample by using Gender Descriptive Statistics is further divided into two types which are: techniques of descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics involve Ethnicity drawing conclusions and making predictions about a population based Car brands 1. Measures of Central Tendency. on a sample of data. These methods allow us to make educated guesses Marital status or inferences about the entire population from a limited subset. 2. Measure of Dispersion. Null Hypothesis (H0): A statement that there is no significant ORDINAL difference or effect in the population. For instance, in drug trials, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug has no effect. Data can be categorized and ranked, but the degree of variation Descriptive Statistics between the data is not established. Ordinal data is also known as qualitative or categorical data. 1. Measures of Central Tendency EXAMPLES: Secondary Data –the collection of data from the second-hand source. Frequency Distribution Table Information could be from another researcher or agency. Top 5 Olympic medallists The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table that shows Language ability (e.g., beginner, intermediate, fluent) frequency of observations for each of the defined classes or categories. Likert-type questions (e.g., very dissatisfied to very satisfied) Data presented in a paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual Parts of Statistical Table form. This includes an enumeration of essential characteristics, INTERVAL emphasizing the most significant features, and highlighting the most 1. Table Number - easy reference for the table striking attributes of the set of data. Data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced, but there is no 2. Table Heading – contains table number and title of the table true zero point. Examples include temperature and composite scores. Textual presentation is useful when: 3. Body – it is the main part of the table that covers the information or EXAMPLES: The data is not large and can be easily understood in a paragraph figures Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams) The data is being used to supplement a qualitative statement 4. Stubs or classes / Row Classifier –it is the classification or categories Personality inventories describing the data and usually found at the left most side of the table. Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius The reader wants to understand the data that supports a statement, rather than reading a large amount of data in a table or diagram. 5. Boxhead / Column Header – located in the top of the body which includes the stub head, the master caption and the column caption. RATIO 6. Source Note - this is place below the table when the data written is Here are some things to consider when using textual presentation: not original. The highest level of measurement, where data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero. Ratio variables also The data presented in textual form must be read in its entirety to get make the difference between known variables and provide information the full information about the true zero's value Types of Frequency Distribution Table Judging the content based on a few facts at the beginning of the text EXAMPLES: can lead to incorrect conclusions 1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – A frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to some qualitative Height Textual presentation can be used to emphasize the importance of a characteristics; data are grouped into non-numerical categories. Age particular point Weight 2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are Temperature in Kelvin Textual presentation is not suitable for describing large amounts of grouped according to some numerical or quantitative characteristics. data. Data collection is gathering information from some person or some The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are other ways to get data. Data collection is done to keep on record for presented in a systematic and orderly manner, which catches one's A contingency table displays frequencies for combinations of two further use, to make essential decisions about different problems, and to attention and may facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the data categorical variables. Analysts also refer to contingency tables as disseminate information on to others. presented. crosstabulation and two-way tables. Primary Data - the collection of data from the first-hand source. This type of data is mostly pure and original. Contingency tables classify outcomes for one variable in rows and the other in columns. The values at the row and column intersections are frequencies for each unique combination of the two variables. Use contingency tables to understand the relationship between categorical variables. For example, is there a relationship between gender (male/female) and type of computer (Mac/PC)? The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can be made exciting and easier to understand when depicted in GRAPHICAL FORM. A graph is a pictorial representation of a given data. Scatter Graph – A scatter plot (aka scatter chart, scatter graph) uses dots to represent values for two different numeric variables. The position of each dot on the horizontal and vertical axis indicates values for an individual data point. Scatter plots are used to observe relationships between variables. LINE GRAPH - A line graph is commonly used to display change over time as a series of data points connected by straight line segments on two axes. The line graph therefore helps to determine the relationship between two sets of values, with one data set always being dependent on the other set. PIE CHART - it is a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed among a grouped of categories. Each pieces of pie represent an amount on the total portion of the category. COLUMN AND BAR GRAPH - Bar and column charts display data in rectangular bars — the longer the bar, the larger the value. A bar chart plots the variable value horizontally, and the fixed dimension, such as time, vertically. A column chart plots the variable value vertically, and the fixed dimension horizontally.