Word Classes/Parts of Speech PDF

WORD CLASSES/PARTS OF SPEECH Just as the human body has parts, and each part plays a particular role for the proper functioning of the body as q whole, every word in English Language falls into a particular group or class; and each word has a particular function to perform in every given sentence. T...

WORD CLASSES/PARTS OF SPEECH Just as the human body has parts, and each part plays a particular role for the proper functioning of the body as q whole, every word in English Language falls into a particular group or class; and each word has a particular function to perform in every given sentence. The knowledge of the parts of speech is fundamental to all learners who may wish to understand how sentences are constructed to convey meaning. A learner who has not mastered parts of speech- also word classes- and their various functions can be likened to an engineer who does not know much about the components of the engine, and therefore, cannot work well on the engine. The word classes discussed are Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Propositions and Conjunctions. This refers to the class the words of a language belongs according to the work that they do in sentences. In a sentence, some words name, some describe, some modify, and others join other words or structures together, while others show relationship between words. There are two types of word classes. They are the open or major word class and the closed or minor word class. We can add new words or experiences to the open system but this is not possible with the closed system. Examples of the open class are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, articles and interjection belong to the closed class system as illustrated below. WORD CLASSES OPEN CLASS nouns verbs adjectives adverbs pronouns preposition conjunction determiner interjection CLOSED CLASS Types of Word Classes/Parts of Speech (Open Class) Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Propositions Conjunctions. 1. Nouns Nouns: A noun is a naming word. It names people, places or things. Nouns are also labels for person or things. Words are classified as nouns based on their functions and their derivational suffixes in sentences instead of their meaning. We also recognize words as nouns based on the words that signal them in sentences. e.g. the My Types of nouns. a an (i) Proper nouns: These types of nouns refer to specific people and places and are usually written with an initial capital letter. They do not appear after the determiner 'a' and 'the'. Examples. Stephen Mary Abubakar Africa Nigeria Lagos (ii) Common nouns: common nouns classify things into types of general categories. Examples Car Dog Flower Chair Road Market (iii) Concrete nouns: concrete nouns refer to physical things like people, objects and places, things that can be observed and measured. They may be singular or plural. Examples Guitar Table Clothes Door Box Bag (iv) Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns refer to ideas, processes, occasions, times and qualities; they cannot be touched or seen. Examples Happiness Weak Birth Confinement Joy Love (v) Count nouns: count nouns are distinguished in terms of singular and plural. They take plural inflections or markers and obey the rule of number. Changing nouns to plural forms Nouns ending in --y form their plurals by changing the --y into --ies e.g story stories penny pennies lorry lorries 2. Nouns ending in -o, -s, -sh, -tch and x often form their plurals by adding --es e.g mistress box mistresses boxes flash flashes watch watches 3. Nouns ending in --f (except --ff) or --fe change to --ves in the plural e.g. hoof hoves (sometimes hoofs) life wife knife lives lives knives 4. Irregular nouns change a vowel or use a suffix different from --s e.g. mouse mice tooth ox child teeth oxen children 5. Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural e.g. sheep sheep fish fish (sometimes fishes) water water sand sand (vi) Non-count nouns: Non- count nouns refer to substances and qualities that cannot be distinguished in terms of singular and plural. They have no plural forms. They may be concrete or abstract. Examples silver silver information hockey traffic information hockey traffic (vii) Collective nouns: Collective nouns refer to groups of people, animals or things. Examples A crowd of people A hive of bees A galaxy of stars A fleet of cars Noun derivational suffixes ment ance al ant y ure or er ion accomplish + ment accomplishment accept + ance arrive + al assist + ant deliver + y depart + ure conduct + or teach + er acceptance arrival assistant delivery departure conductor teacher accumulate + ion accumulation The possessive case. Both regular and irregular singular and plural nouns are used in sentences to show possession E.g (a) add 's to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in --s: A child's voice Russia\'s exports The people's choice The horse's mouth The government's decision Men's clothes (b) add the apostrophe alone (') with plural nouns ending in --s: A girls' school The eagles' nest The smiths' car (c) Nouns ending in 's' take the apostrophe alone: Mr. Jones's / Jones's house Yeats's / Yeats' poems Charles's /Charles discovery (d) In compound nouns and titles the last word takes the 's: my brother-in-law's guitar Henry the Eight's wives (e) In compound plural nouns, the apostrophe comes after the 's in the last noun element. e.g. my sister-in-laws' apartment my brother-in-laws' house Read through the extract below and list all the nouns in it. EXERCISE: CHRISTMAS EVE Something dead strange has happened to christmas. It's just not the same as it used to be when I was a kid. In fact I've never really got over the trauma of finding out that my parents had been lying to me annually about the existence of Santa Claus. Assignment: write the plural forms of the following nouns. 1. baby 2. child 3. country 4. aircraft 5. foot 6. key 7. kilo 11.man 12.photo 13.piano 14. sheep 15. shelf 16. storey 17. thief 8. woman 18. story 9. leaf 19. tooth 10. loaf 20 wife Gender Gender has to do with sex of animals and human beings. There are three genders associated with nouns. These are; 1. Masculine gender associated with the male sex for both human beings and animals. 2. Feminine gender associated with female sex for both animals and human beings. 3. Neuter gender associated with inanimate things. Examples: masculine feminine 1. boy girl 2. bridegroom bride 3. husband wife 4. widower widow 5. brother sister 6. father mother 7. nephew niece 8. son daughter 9. uncle aunt 10. actor actress 11. king queen 12. waiter waitress 2. Verbs The verb is usually seen as the nucleus of the English clause and sentence. Verbs usually bear the weight of tense, person and number in the sentence and these three features constitute the markers of agreement in the clause and sentence. There are two types of verbs -- Lexical and Auxiliary. Examples of lexical verbs are talk, play, classify, sweep, etc. Two classifications of auxiliary verbs are identified in English: Primary (do, have, be) and Modal (can, may, shall, will; could, might, should, would; must, ought to, used to, need, dare). The lexical verbs are open, while the modal auxiliaries are closed system verbs. 1. Lexical Verbs There are five basic verb forms of the lexical verbs: 1. Base (V): walk, sing, cut. 2. --s forms (3rd Person singular present) (V -s): walks, sings, cuts 3. Past (V --ed1): walked, sang, cut 4. --ing Participle (present participle) V --ing: walking, singing, cutting 5. --ed Participle (past participle) V --ed2: walked, sung, cut Exercise 1 1. Identify the kinds of verbs represented by each of the three examples of verbs in the discussion on the verb forms. 2. Give three representative examples of your own. 1. Regular and Irregular Verbs Another way of classifying verbs with respect to morphology is the difference between regular and irregular verbs. As can be seen in the previous section on verb forms, the structure and spelling of the examples in numbers 3 and 5 (V-ed 1 & 2) indicate the structural difference in the three words used to illustrate the forms of verbs. V BASE V --ing -ING PARTICIPLE V -- s -S FORM kick kicking kicks love loves V -ed PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE kicked loved fry loving frying fries fried These verbs are regular because it is possible to predict their other forms with the knowledge of their base. Most English verbs are in this category. Derived verbs from other classes like nouns also fall into this category -- even if they are irregular words in their primary classes. For example, 'man' is an irregular noun. However, it becomes 'manned' as a V --ed form of a derived verb. In spite of the possibility of predicting the forms of regular verbs, we should note that each regular verb must still be learned individually because of other spelling peculiarities and rules that inform the inflection of verbs in English; e.g. doubling of root consonants at the point of affixation: 1. Permit permitting permitted Another instance is the treatment of --y: 1. lay/lays laid hurry/hurries hurried lie/lies lying It can be seen in each of the three examples above that --y is treated differently. 1. The dropping of --e is another manifestation of inconsistency in the spelling of regular verbs in English. save saving saved dye dyeing dyed The rule of --e dropping is observed in the case of 'save' but not so with 'dye' as seen in this example. Exercise 2 Identify other instances of inconsistencies in the application of the three spelling rules discussed above. Irregular Verbs in English have a varying number of distinct forms which make them to be problematic for even L1 users of English. Those using the language as a second language must therefore take pains to learn each irregular form on its own. Attempt to describe the trend noticed in the following set of irregular verbs: \*Indicate the classification BASE (V) V --ed1 V --ed2 e.g. all alike Put put put All different Write wrote written Come came come Sing sang sung Spell spelt spelt Spoil spoilt spoilt go went gone Sleep slept Slept Cut cut Cut Catch caught caught Bind bound bound Read read Read Saw sawed Sawn Slide slid Slid 1. The Auxiliary Verbs in English (do, have, be) also present an interesting picture. They can function as lexical verbs especially when they occur in the sentence as the only verb form. For instance, in: I have the book. Have is a lexical verb because it is the only verb in the sentence. Compare with this sentence: The boys have written the essay. The words in italics are verbs; have is the auxiliary, while written is the lexical verb. Let us briefly discuss them in turns. 1. Have Base have -s form has Past had -ing form having -ed participle had (but it occurs only as lexical verb) 1. Be The base form of this verb is be and it has eight different forms: 1. 1st person singular present am: I am going home. 2. 3rd person singular present is: She is my sister. 3. 2nd , 1st and 3rd persons plural present are: You/We/They are invited. 4. 1st and 3rd person singular past was: I/She was invited. 5. 2nd person, 1st and 3rd person plural past were: You/We/They were invited. 6. --ing form being: He is being foolish. 7. --ed participle been: I/They/You/ have been invited. These eight forms are to be mastered and should not be misused or misrepresented in our sentences. 1. Modal Auxiliaries The modal auxiliaries of English are: can/could; may/might; shall/should; will/would; must; ought to; used to; need and dare. An informed combination of auxiliaries and main verbs in English can produce over a hundred different sentences. It is therefore expedient for a second language user of English to master the auxiliary verbs and their uses. 1. Finite and Non-Finite Verbs We can identify four features to differentiate between finite and non-finite verbs. 1. Finite verbs are marked for tense; e.g. He plays/played football in Lagos. 1. Finite verb occurs as the verb element of a clause. In this case there is always an indication of agreement/concord between the subject and the finite verb. I am coming. You/We/ They are coming. He/She/It is coming. However, if there is a modal auxiliary between the subject and the main verb, there is no concord because the modal auxiliary bears the weight of agreement; e.g. I/you/she/we/they will play football in Lagos. 1. Finite verb phrases have mood. Mood refers to the disposition or attitude of the speaker to the proposition expressed in the sentence, especially as it affects the addressee. There are three main moods in English: declarative (indicative/ statement of facts), imperative (expressing commands) and interrogative (questions). A non-finite verb does not express moods. 2. The non-finite forms are infinite (to play), the --ing participle (playing), the --ed participle (played), and the bare infinitive -- it has the to-infinitive as its underlying structure (have). Finite He plays very well. He is playing football. Non-finite To play football in London is my ambition. Playing football in London is fashionable. He had been playing football before. Having been playing football in London, passage. Let us have him play football. (This form has special uses as seen in the example.) he was given a free As can be noticed from the examples, the clauses with only non-finite verb phrases cannot stand alone, because the absence of the finite verb deprives them of complete senses. Let us avoid constructing sentences that do not have finite verbs; e.g. \*Having cleaned the room does not make a complete sense. This kind of construction is called a non finite clause and it is a subordinate clause. It needs a finite clause to make sense; e.g. Having cleaned the room, Bisi spread the mat on the floor. The underlined portion is a finite clause. E. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs The last classes of verbs to be discussed in this chapter are the transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs transfer action from the actor to the direct object; e.g. verbs such as kick, sweep, build, play, write, etc. Ade kicked the ball. In this sentence, we recognise that the actor Ade, performed an action on the ball, which is the direct object. Intransitive verbs do not transfer action in this way; i.e. these verbs do not need a direct object to realise their meanings and make complete sense. Examples are: sleep, dance, arrive, etc. Davido danced yesterday. Some other verbs can take more than one object; they are called ditransitive verbs, e.g. give. Ade gave Sammy the book. Both Sammy and the book are objects of the verb gave. While the book is the direct object, Sammy is the indirect object. Exercise 1. Find five examples each for the transitive and intransitive verbs in English. 2. Find two more examples of ditransitive verbs and use them in correct sentences. 3. Adjectives An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun or a pronoun. It provides extra information about nouns by giving details of physical qualities like colour and shape, and psychological qualities like emotions, and by providing evaluative judgments. E.g. Some green leaves A heavy sack A funny film A good story A foolish excuse CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJECTIVES (i) Position in relation to nouns. Adjective can come before nouns (attributive adjectives) and after verbs (predicative adjectives) e.g. The large balloon (attributive). A pure white stallion (attributive). The balloon is large (predicative). The essay is very good (predicative). (ii) Grading: Adjectives can be graded in terms of positive/absolute (base), comparative (er, ier) and superlative (est, iest) degrees so that nouns can be compared. E.g. A big car. A bigger car The bigger car. The biggest car. We form the comparative and superlative degrees of polysyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives by using 'more' and 'most' before the adjectives. E.g. Fortunate more fortunate most fortunate Grateful Diligent Careful Serious Peaceful Prayerful Attentive more grateful most grateful more diligent most diligent (iii) Irregularity: Some adjectives are irregular as in the following patterns. Bad worse worst Good better best Little Order of Adjectives When we use two or more adjectives together before a noun, we must put them in a certain order. Several variations are possible but a fairly usual order is: Possessive adjectives such as (my, your, his) and this, that, those, these come first. Adjectives of size e.g. big, small, large, wide etc. come next. Adjectives of size are followed by general description adjectives e.g. dirty, smart, ugly, beautiful, agile etc. The Adjectives of shape follow e.g. round, square, oval etc. After these adjectives, we have the adjectives of age e.g. Old, young, new etc. The next adjectives are the adjectives of colour. E.g. blue, green, yellow, white etc. This is followed by the adjectives of material. E.g. steel, wooden etc. This is followed by the adjectives of origin. E.g. Austrian, Nigerian, French, English etc. These adjectives are followed by the adjectives of purpose. E.g. dining, reading etc. Types of Adjectives There are different kinds of adjectives in English. Some of them include: Demonstrative adjectives: These types of adjectives point to the objects they qualify in sentences. They include words like; that, this, these those etc. Adjectives of quality: These types of adjectives show the quality of a thing. Some examples include such words as dry, good, happy, small etc. Distributive adjectives: These types of adjectives distributive qualities to certain things or objects. They include such words as each, every, either, neither etc. Quantitative adjectives: These types of adjectives quantify objectives or things. Some common examples are; Some, any, many, much, little, few, etc. Interrogative adjectives: These types of adjectives are used interrogatively. They include such words as which, what, whose, who, etc. Possessive adjectives: These types of adjectives show possession. Some common examples are; my, your, his, its, our, their etc. Some special uses of adjectives In English, adjectives of quality have the same form in the singular , and plural and for all genders. Some notable examples are; a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls, a good film, good films etc. When two or more adjectives follow a verb, we put and before the last one. Example: The day was cold, wet and windy. We can put but if there is contrast of ideas. Example: The bag was small but heavy When two or more adjectives of colour precede a noun, we put and before the last one, but we don\`t need and when there is only one adjective of colour e.g. A blue and brown bag but a big brown bag. We can use both present and past participles as adjectives as in the following examples: The play was boring (adj.), The audience was bored(verb)The noise was terrifying (adj.), every one was terrified ( verb) 4. Adverbs An adverb is a word that either modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb like itself. It is used to show how, where, when, how often or to what extent an action takes place. This assertion is indicated in the sentences below: I am dreadfully tired. (Here, the adverb modifies the adjective tired) Don\`t speak so slowly. (In the second example, the adverb so modifies the adverb slowly). He is here. (In the last example, the adverb here modifies the verb is). Adverbs are generally mobile, this implies that they can come at the beginning, middle and final positions of sentences e.g Slowly, the boy won the race. The boy slowly won the race. The boy won the race slowly. Kinds of adverbs Adverbs of manner: These types of adverbs show the manner in which an action took place. They answer the question how. Some examples include; bravely, fast, happily,hard,quickly, well etc. Adverbs of place. These types of adverbs indicate the place where an action came on and they answer the question where. Some examples include; school, down, here, near, there, up etc. Adverbs of time: These types of adverbs show the time of an action and they answer the question when. Some examples include; now, soon, still, then this morning etc. Adverbs of frequency: These types of adverbs show how often an action comes up and they answer the question how often. They include such words as; always, everyday, never, often, twice etc. Adverbs of degree: These types of adverbs indicate the extent to which an action comes on and they answer the question to which extent. Some common examples are; almost, fairly, rather, quite, very, so, too etc. Adverbs of reason: These types of adverbs show the reason for an action and they answer the question why. Some examples are; because, for, therefore, since etc. Adverbs of condition: These types of adverbs show the condition under which an action could come on and they answer the question under which condition. Some common examples include; if, only, provided unless, etc. Adverbs of concession: These types of adverbs show allowance or what is conceded and they are introduced by such words as; though, although, even though, even if etc. Adverbs of result: These types of adverbs show the result of an action and they are introduced by such words as that, such that, therefore consequently etc. Adverbs with the same forms as adjectives The following are some examples of adverbs that have the same forms as adjectives. back far left low still early fast little much straight enough ill long more well Adverbs Adjectives The train went too fast This is the fast train She went straight home Draw a straight line You can dial London direct The direct route is best Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs This may vary with regular one syllable adverbs and two or more syllables and irregular adverbs e.g. Regular Regular (one syllable): hard harder hardest light lighter lightest strong stronger strongest Regular (Two or more syllables): quickly more quickly most quickly slowly more slowly most slowly Irregular Irregular forms: badly worse worst far farther farthest little less least much more most well better best Order of adverbs Like adjectives, when two or more adverbs come in a string, they usually follow a particular order as indicated below. Adverbs of manner usually follow adverbs of direction e.g. (i) Janet walked away slowly. (ii) Laide ran off happily etc. Adverbs of manner usually come before adverbs of place e.g. (i) They were playing noisily outside (the house) (ii) You can buy fruits more cheaply here Adverbs of time often come last e.g. A thief bugles their house usually at night Types of Word Classes/Parts of Speech (Closed Class) 1. Preposition The term preposition is derived from a Latin word which simply means 'placed before'. A preposition is, therefore, a non content word that shows different kinds of relationships between words. The relationships may be mental, psychological or that of location. Generally, prepositions come before the words they control. But in a few occasions, they may come after such words e.g. 1. Where are you coming from? 2. From where are you coming? Types of prepositions Prepositions come in different typologies in English. These include the following: 1. Simple prepositions e.g. in, on, at, from, above, below, under, off, of etc. 2. Double prepositions e.g. away from, from within, in to, on to along with, aside from, as to, together with, up to, out of etc. 3. Complex prepositions e.g. in contact with, in lieu of, by virtue of, by dint of, at variance with in respect of, in charge of etc. 4. Disguised prepositions e.g. ashore, ahunting, afishing o'clock etc. The use of some simple prepositions is illustrated in the chart below. The possible positions of prepositions in sentences In questions with wh- words however, we usually put the preposition at the end of the sentence e.g. (a) Who are you talking to? (b) To whom were you talking is also possible but this usage is extremely formal In relative clauses, we usually put the preposition at the end of the clause and omit the relative pronoun e.g. (a) The people I was travelling with spoke French. However, in formal speech and writing we could also say: (b) The people with whom I was travelling spoke French. In phrasal verbs the preposition (or adverb) must come after the verb e.g. Which bridge did they blow up? Other guidelines for the use of simple prepositions. At: We use at with a point in time, someone's age or to indicate a particular location e.g. At 4.30, at dawn, at night, at (the age of) six, at the bank etc. On: We use on with a day or a date and with the morning/afternoon etc. e.g. On Monday, on Christmas day, on 4 June, on the morning of 6 December, on Friday night etc. On time means at the exact time arranged and not before or after it. e.g. The 8.30 train started on time (i.e. it started at 8.30 exactly). In: We use in with periods of time: e.g. in five minutes, in 1996, In the 9th century, in the morning/afternoon/evening etc. We also use it to indicate the infliction of injury e.g. (i) The player was injured in the knee. (ii) I slapped the girl in the face. Since: As a preposition, it means from a point in time up to the time of speaking. It could be used as a preposition, as an adverb and a conjunction e.g. (i) Kemi has been here since Monday (as a preposition) (ii) She left the village in 1980 and I haven\'t seen her since (adverb) (iii) She has worked for us(ever) since she left school (conjunction) By, as a means of movement: We travel by sea/air, by bus/plane/train, by bicycle or on a bicycle etc. For a bus on motion, we say; I was on the bus that had a ghastly accident. Into: We use into to indicate a movement from one place to another or to indicate entrance e.g. The students climbed into the lorry Onto: We use onto for movement when there is a change in level e.g. The family climbed onto their roof to escape the flood. 2. Pronouns I. Pronouns generally function either to replace a whole noun phrase (NP) as subject of a clause, or as the main component (Head) of an NP. Pronouns are thus generally perceived as performing the function of substitutes or 'replacements' for noun phrases. Where a pronoun functions to replace an NP, no determiner is usually needed e.g. The teacher invited the little Yoruba girl, because he liked her. a b a1 b1 A determiner is however needed in a number of cases Bisi cleaned the big room and the small one too. II. Study the following sentences showing the interrelationship between pronouns and determiners: (a) DETERMINER which house is yours? PRONOUN which is yours? DETERMINER this house is mine. PRONOUN this is my house. (b) DETERMINER ONLY The house is mine. (c) PRONOUN ONLY Alice has hurt herself. The boys were enjoined to love one another. You will observe that many items can function both as determiners (a) i.e. they require a head, and as pronouns which do not require a head. Others, however, can be determiner only, (b) or pronoun only. III. Leech and Svartvik (1975, p.276) observe that, partly because pronouns differ among themselves, partly because many pronouns are related to other categories, pronouns are examined under the following headings: DEMONSTRATIVES: this, that, these, those. INTERROGATIVES: who, which, what, where, etc. NEGATION: no, nobody, no one, nothing, etc. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: I, my, mine, myself. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS: each other and one another. RELATIVE CLAUSES: who, whom, whose, which, that QUANTIFIERS: some, any, and very and their combinations with-body,-one,-thing,-each, all both, either; much, many, more, most, enough, several, a little, a few, less, least, etc. In this PRONOUNS section however, we shall only briefly look at just one of the headings, Personal and Reflexive Pronouns. Task 4: One thing you can do however is to examine each of the items listed under the heading in the on text of phrases, clauses and sentences. It will be clear to you that they perform replacement functions. IV. Personal and Reflexive Pronouns (a) The relationship between personal and reflexive pronouns can be examined in three ways: (i) Distinction between personal and non-personal Gender, and within personal gender between masculine and feminine; he/himself, she/herself on one hand, and it/itself on the other. (ii) Distinction between 1st and 2nd and 3rd persons: e.g. 1st: I; we/myself; ourselves. (iii) Distinction between singular and plural number (of the example for ii above). Note that for the 2nd person the same form is used in singular and plural personal and possessive pronouns (i.e. you; your; yours), for the reflexive however, the Number distinction is marked, i.e. yourself/yourselves. Task 5: Since the pronoun is considered to be closed-system item, list or tabulate the items under the personal and reflexive pronouns of English taking note of the marking of Person, Gender, Number and Case (subjective or objective). Let us examine Personal pronouns a little further by taking note of the importance of context and grammatical position in the selection of person, number and gender on one hand, and case, on the other. The choice of Person, Number and Gender is determined by meaning as supplied by the context of use. Study the following examples and comment on the relations between NP and Pronoun: (i) My wife is resting, but she will come out soon. (ii) As soon as it was pushed, the car resuscitated. (iii) The car resuscitated as soon as it was pushed. (iv) As soon as the car was pushed, it resuscitated. Also, the choice of subjective and objective is determined by grammatical position. The subject position requires the subjective case, while the objective forms goes with all other positions. Examine this example of the subject complement in all objective case: (A) Who's there? (B) It's me (informal) or (B2 ) I am. Note that traditional grammar will rule out B1 and prescribe that it should be "It's" or "I". This is however avoided in contemporary English because it sounds rather unnatural. V. Let us conclude our discussions on Pronouns with the following highlight on further functional classification of Pronouns: (i) Place: Ojo is in Ibadan and Aina is there too. (ii) Time: Ojo left on Monday and Aina left then too (iii) Others: Bisi cleaned the big room very well, and the small one less so. (iv) 'So' also replaces a predication (along with the pro-verb 'do'): Mrs. Aina hoped Bisi would clean the room very carefully, before her arrival but she didn't do so. (v) The operator (do) can sometimes achieve the pro-predication alone: e.g. (A) She didn't clean the big room (B) Yes, she did. 3. Conjunctions h 4. Interjection DEFINITION OF INTERJECTION Interjections are words that forcefully convey strong emotions or surprises An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations (ouch!, wow!), curses (damn!), greetings (hey, bye), response particles (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), hesitation markers (uh, er, um) and other words (stop, cool). Due to its diverse nature, the category of interjections partly overlaps with a few other categories like profanities, discourse markers and fillers. The use and linguistic discussion of interjections can be traced historically through the Greek and Latin Modistae over many centuries. An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses emotion. It interrupts, or interjects, the general flow of writing. An interjection is usually punctuated with an exclamation point. Any word or words may be used as an interjection. However, some are more common than others. Most interjections are just one word. FEATURES OF INTERJECTION It is used to indicate different feelings like fear, anger, happiness or joy Interjections often stand alone i.e. it does not enter into the construction of the sentence 1. Interjections are generally not meaningful in the structure of the sentence. 2. Interjections are sudden, so we can\'t change them. 3. Interjections are an indication of the mood of the conversation. 4. Interjections are exclamations, which do not affect the rest of the sentence. TYPES OF INTERJECTION 1. Primary Interjection 2. Secondary Interjection PRIMARY INTERJECTION These are single words used to express convey emotions. Examples: wow-amazement, hey, oh-fancy, Aah-scared, yahoo-happiness, hmm-hesitating. When primary interjections occurs as part of sentences, it is often followed by a comma as in Wow, what a nice result SECOND INTERJECTION This is interjection in a sentence. Ahh: that is great. Alas! I'm lost Congrats! You made it at last PILOT QUESTIONS 1 -- 10 Tick the correct options from a to c 1. Aah! expresses \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) fancy (b) scared (c) happiness 2. Boo! indicates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) fancy (b) disapproval (c) scared 3. Yahoo! means \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) fancy (b) happiness (c) amazement 4. Hmm! indicates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) happiness (b) hesitating (c) scared 5. Ohh-la-la! means \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) surprise (b) fancy (c) happiness 6. Alas! shows \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (a) surprise (b) fancy (c) happiness 7. Good God! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 8. Ooh! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 9. Congrats! you won is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above 10. Hmm! is an example of (a) Primary interjection (b) secondary interjection (c) none of the above Collocation