Lev Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development PDF

Child and Adolescen Presented by: Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST, RPm,CHRA,LPT Theory of Cognitive Development By:  Early Life Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children...

Child and Adolescen Presented by: Ian Jaylord F. Beran,MOP,MST, RPm,CHRA,LPT Theory of Cognitive Development By:  Early Life Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning—a continuous process that is profoundly influenced by culture. Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning feature prominently in his theory. Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western Russian Empire. In 1917, he earned a law degree at Moscow State University, where he studied a range of topics including sociology, linguistics, psychology, and philosophy.  His formal work in psychology began in 1924 at Moscow's Institute of Psychology. He completed a dissertation in 1925 on the psychology of art but was awarded his degree in absentia due to an acute tuberculosis relapse that left him incapacitated for a year. Following his illness, Vygotsky began researching topics such as language, attention, and memory with the help of his students. Among these were Alexei Leontiev, the developmental psychologist and philosopher who developed activity theory, and neuropsychologist Alexander Luria, the author of "Higher Cortical Functions in Man.". Sociocultural Theory The work of Lev Vygotsky has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become known as sociocultural theory. Vygotsky’s theory comprises concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky believed cognitive development is influenced by cultural and social factors. He emphasized the role of social interaction in the development of mental abilities e.g., speech and reasoning in children. Vygotsky strongly believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.” In other words, the zone is the gap between what a child knows and what they do not. Acquiring the missing information requires skills that a child does not yet possess or cannot use independently, but can with the help of a "more knowledgeable other.“ Cognitive development is a socially mediated process in which children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. The More Knowledgeable Other Vygotsky's "more knowledgeable other" is a person who has greater knowledge and skills than the learner. Often, this is an adult such as a parent or teacher who provides educational opportunities, such as guided instruction, within a child's zone of proximal development. Vygotsky noticed that children also learn a great deal from peer interactions. In fact, children often pay more attention to what friends and classmates know and are doing than they do to adults. Teachers can leverage this tendency by pairing less skilled children with more knowledgeable classmates to observe and imitate. The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is someone who has a higher level of ability or greater understanding than the learner regarding a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO can be a teacher, parent, coach, or even a peer who provides guidance and modeling to enable the child to learn skills within their zone of proximal development (the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance). The interactions with more knowledgeable others significantly increase not only the quantity of information and the number of skills a child develops, but also affects the development of higher-order mental functions such as formal reasoning. Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only develop through interaction with more advanced others. According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children’s cognitive development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. Adults convey to children how their culture interprets and responds to the world. They show the meaning they attach to objects, events, and experiences. They provide the child with what to think (the knowledge) and how to think (the processes, the tools to think with). Vygotsky’s theory encourages collaborative and cooperative learning between children and teachers or peers. Scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are effective educational strategies based on Vygotsky’s ideas. In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. To support employees in their learning process, some companies are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through learning. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. The MKO is not a static position of superiority but a fluid role that shifts contextually in response to the learners’ evolving understanding and the dynamics of the learning environment. As learners gain greater understanding, they can transition from being novices to assuming the role of MKO for their peers. This highlights the collaborative and fluid nature of learning within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) where knowledge is co-constructed rather than simply transmitted from a more knowledgeable individual. Abtahi (2016) suggests that tools themselves can function as “more knowledgeable others,” embodying cultural-historical knowledge that guides learners’ thinking and actions. Abtahi uses the example of fraction strips guiding children’s understanding of fraction addition, even without direct instruction from an adult. This suggests that the design and affordances of tools can structure learning experiences, creating a zone of proximal development (ZPD) where learners, through their interactions with these tools, can achieve more than they could independently. This idea is further supported by Puntambekar and Hübscher (2005), who discuss the use of curricula, software tools, and other resources as forms of scaffolding. Zone of Proximal Development The concept of the more knowledgeable other relates to the second important principle of Vygotsky’s work, the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD relates to the difference between what a child (or a novice) can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Vygotsky (1978) views the zone of proximal development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should occur, enabling the child to develop skills they will later use independently, thus fostering higher mental functions. The ZPD is not a static space but constantly shifts as the child learns and develops new skills. As a child’s competence grows, their zone of proximal development also expands to encompass new challenges. Vygotsky emphasizes social interaction as crucial to learning, arguing that children develop more fully with support than alone. He defines the gap between actual and potential learning as the ZPD, asserting that collaboration with more knowledgeable others is essential to bridge this gap. According to Vygotsky (1978), the child (or a novice) learns through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their performance. Social interaction, therefore, supports the child’s cognitive development in the ZPD, leading to a higher level of reasoning. Internalization of Knowledge Internalization is a central concept in Vygotsky’s theory, bridging the gap between social interaction and individual cognitive development. It’s the process by which external, socially mediated activities are transformed into internal mental processes, allowing individuals to acquire new knowledge and skills. Vygotsky viewed higher mental functions, such as language, reasoning, and self-regulation, as originating in social interaction. He argued that these functions are not innate or biologically determined but acquired through participation in culturally meaningful activities with others. Internalization within the ZPD isn’t a passive transfer of information but a dynamic process where learners actively participate and engage in meaning-making. This active engagement ensures that learners don’t simply replicate the expert’s actions but develop a deeper understanding of the underlying principles and strategies. For example, a child learning to solve a problem with a parent’s guidance doesn’t simply memorize the solution but actively constructs their understanding through dialogue and interaction. This process, often termed scaffolding, underscores the importance of providing support that aligns with the learner’s current capabilities and gradually diminishes as the learner gains mastery. Scaffolding The ZPD has become synonymous with the term “scaffolding” in the literature. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing; it was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976). Scaffolding consists of activities provided by the educator or a more knowledgeable person to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development. It’s the “how” of guided learning, the specific strategies and techniques used by a more knowledgeable other to bridge the gap between a learner’s current abilities and potential development. This support can be provided in many different ways, such as modeling or asking questions, and is used across different subjects and age groups. Scaffolding is a dynamic process that changes based on the student’s progress and the task at hand, so it will look different in different situations. Contingency (or responsiveness) is paramount. This means the teacher continually assesses the learner’s understanding and calibrates their support accordingly. Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces, and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself, and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently.  Five ways in which an adult can “scaffold” a child’s learning: 1. Engaging the child’s interest 2. Maintaining the child’s interest in the task e.g., avoiding distraction and providing clear instructions on how to start the task. 3. Keeping the child’s frustration under control e.g., by supportive interactions, adapting instructions according to where the child is struggling. 4. Emphasizing the important features of the task 5. Demonstrating the task: showing the child how to do the task in simple, clear steps. As the child progresses through the ZPD, the necessary scaffolding level declines from 5 to 1. Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which furniture items should be placed in particular areas of a doll’s house. Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) while others were allowed to work on this by themselves (Piaget’s discovery learning). Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD) showed the greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The conclusion is that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning). Vygotsky and Language Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool for communicating with the outside world. According to Vygotsky (1962), language plays two critical roles in cognitive development: 1. Cultural transmission of knowledge: Language is the primary vehicle for passing down cultural knowledge, values, and practices across generations. This transmission occurs through formal instruction and informal interactions, shaping individuals’ understanding of the world and their place within it. 2. Language becomes a powerful tool for intellectual adaptation: Language is not merely a tool for communication; it’s a tool for thinking. Language facilitates the development of higher mental functions like abstract thinking, planning, and problem-solving. Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: 1.Social speech: The initial form of language serves as the primary means for children to engage with others, establish shared meanings, and participate in cultural activities (typical from age two). 2.Private speech: Overt and audible speech directed to the self and serves an intellectual function (typical from age three). 3.Inner speech: According to Vygotsky, private speech doesn’t simply disappear; it goes “underground,” transforming into silent inner speech (typical from age seven). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point, speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, and speech becomes representational. As children develop mental representation, particularly the skill of language, they start to communicate with themselves in much the same way as they would communicate with others. When this happens, children’s monologues are internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development. This internal dialogue allows individuals to mentally rehearse different viewpoints, contributing to more sophisticated social understanding and problem-solving abilities Private Speech Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking. Thus, in Vygotsky’s view, private speech was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in form and function) to inner speech than social speech. Private speech is overt, audible, and observable, often seen in children who talk to themselves while problem-solving. Conversely, inner speech is covert or hidden because it happens internally. It is the silent, internal dialogue that adults often engage in while thinking or problem-solving. Functions of Private Speech Through private speech, children collaborate with themselves in the same way a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborates with them to achieve a given function. Vygotsky sees “private speech” as a means for children to plan activities and strategies, aiding their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-regulation of behavior. Therefore, language accelerates thinking and understanding (Jerome Bruner also views language this way). Vygotsky believed that children who engage in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively. Imagine a child working on a complex puzzle. They might say things like, “Where does this piece go? No, it doesn’t fit there. Maybe I should try turning it around.” This self-directed talk helps them to: Focus attention: By verbalizing the problem and possible solutions, children are more likely to stay on task. Plan and sequence actions: Talking through the steps helps them organize their approach. Monitor progress: They can use their words to evaluate their success and make adjustments. The frequency and content of private speech correlate with behavior or performance. For example, private speech appears functionally related to cognitive performance: It appears at times of difficulty with a task. For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005), problem-solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), and schoolwork in both language (Berk & Landau, 1993), and mathematics (Ostad & Sorensen, 2007). There is also evidence (Behrend et al., 1992) that those children who displayed the characteristic whispering and lip movements associated with private speech when faced with a difficult task were generally more attentive and successful than their ‘quieter’ classmates. Educational Implications Vygotsky’s approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions. Social constructivism posits that knowledge is constructed and learning occurs through social interactions within a cultural and historical context. Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by constructing knowledge through social negotiation. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its social context. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, then integrated into the individual’s mental structure. Teaching styles grounded in constructivism represent a deliberate shift from traditional, didactic (instructional), memory-oriented transmission models (Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student- centered approach. Traditionally, schools have failed to foster environments where students actively participate in their own and their peers’ education. Vygotsky’s theory, however, calls for both the teacher and students to assume non-traditional roles as they engage in collaborative learning. Rather than having a teacher impose their understanding onto students for future recitation, the teacher should co-create meaning with students in a manner that allows learners to take ownership (Hausfather, 1996). For instance, a student and teacher might start a task with varying levels of expertise and understanding. As they adapt to each other’s perspective, the teacher must articulate their insights in a way that the student can comprehend, leading the student to a fuller understanding of the task or concept. The student can then internalize the task’s operational aspect (“how to do it”) into their inner speech or private dialogue. Vygotsky referred to this reciprocal understanding and adjustment process as intersubjectivity. Note No matter who serves as the more knowledgeable other, the key is that they provide the needed social instruction within the zone of proximal development when the learner is sensitive to guidance. Scaffolding involves the teacher providing support structures to help students master skills just beyond their current level. In reciprocal teaching, teachers and students take turns leading discussions using strategies like summarizing and clarifying. Both scaffolding and reciprocal teaching emphasize the shared construction of knowledge, in line with Vygotsky’s views. Vygotsky highlighted the importance of language in cognitive development. Inner speech is used for mental reasoning, and external speech is used to converse with others. Initially, these operations occur separately. Indeed, before age two, a child employs words socially; they possess no internal language. Once thought and language merge, however, the social language is internalized and assists the child with their reasoning. Thus, the social environment is ingrained within the child’s learning. Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky also suggested that human development results from a dynamic interaction between individuals and society. Through this interaction, children learn gradually and continuously from parents and teachers. However, this learning varies from one culture to the next. It's important to note that Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the dynamic nature of this interaction. Society does not just impact people; people also affect their society. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes individuals’ active role in their cognitive development, highlighting the interplay between innate abilities, social interaction, and cultural tools. Vygotsky posited that people aren’t passive recipients of knowledge but actively interact with their environment. This interaction forms the basis of cognitive development. Infants are born with basic abilities for intellectual development, called “elementary mental functions.” These include attention, sensation, perception, and memory. Through interaction within the sociocultural environment, elementary functions develop into more sophisticated “higher mental functions.” Higher mental functions are advanced cognitive processes that develop through social interaction and cultural influences. They are distinct from the basic, innate elementary mental functions. Unlike elementary functions (like basic attention or memory), higher functions are: * Conscious awareness: The individual is aware of these processes. Voluntary control: They can be deliberately used and controlled. Mediated: They involve the use of cultural tools or signs (like language). Social in origin: They develop through social interaction. Examples include language and communication, logical reasoning, problem- solving, planning, attention control, self-regulation, and metacognition. Vygotsky posited that higher mental functions are not innate but develop through social interaction and the internalization of cultural tools. Lev Vygotsky's Contributions to Psychology Vygotsky's died of tuberculosis on June 11, 1934, when he was just 37. Still, Vygotsky is considered a formative thinker in psychology, and much of his work is still being discovered and explored today.. Although he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov, Freud, and Piaget, Vygotsky never attained their level of eminence during his lifetime. The Russian Communist Party often criticized Vygotsky's work, making his writings largely inaccessible to the rest of the world. His premature death also contributed to his obscurity. Despite this, Vygotsky's work has continued to grow in influence since his death— particularly in the fields of developmental and educational psychology. Tools of Intellectual Adaptation Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky’s term for methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with the more knowledgeable members of society. Cultural tools are methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with more knowledgeable members of society. These tools, such as language, counting systems, mnemonic techniques, and art forms, shape the way individuals think, problem-solve, and interact with the world. Cultural tools, particularly language, influence the development of higher-order thinking skills. Other tools include writing systems, number systems, mnemonic techniques, works of art, diagrams, maps, and drawings. These tools are products of sociocultural evolution, passed down and transformed across generations. This historical and cultural embeddedness means that tools carry within them the accumulated knowledge and practices of a particular community. For example, biological factors limit memory in young children. However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. For example, in Western culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, carrying pebbles, or repeating the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated. Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and, therefore, socio-culturally determined. Therefore, intellectual adaptation tools vary from culture to culture – as in the memory example. It wasn't until the 1970s that Vygotsky's theories became known outside of Russia, as new concepts and ideas emerged in the fields of educational and developmental psychology. Since then, Vygotsky's works have been translated many times over and have gained international recognition, particularly in the area of education.  Jean Piaget vs. Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget and Vygotsky were contemporaries, yet Vygotsky’s ideas did not become well known until long after his death. Although their theories on child development have some similarities, there are also significant differences.. Lack of Attention to Emotional Development The theory is criticized for focusing primarily on cognitive development while neglecting the emotional and social-emotional aspects of development. Modern developmental psychology recognizes that cognitive and emotional development are deeply intertwined. Critics argue that Vygotsky’s theory doesn’t adequately address how emotions Influence cognitive processes and vice versa. While Vygotsky emphasized the social nature of learning, he didn’t extensively explore how children develop emotional intelligence or learn to regulate their emotions through social interactions. The concept of ZPD focuses on cognitive tasks, but critics argue it should also consider emotional challenges and how supportive relationships help children develop emotional competencies. The process of internalization in Vygotsky’s theory focuses on cognitive processes, but critics argue it should also consider how children internalize emotional coping strategies and understanding. Vygotsky places more emphasis on how culture affects cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, who emphasized universal cognitive change (i.e., all children would go through the same sequence of cognitive development regardless of their cultural experiences), Vygotsky leads us to expect variable development depending on cultural diversity. This contradicts Piaget’s view of universal stages of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages like Piaget does). Hence, Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.