Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction to Psychology What is Psychology?  Science of Human and Animal Behavior;  It includes the application of this science to human problems.  The word ‘PSYCHOLOGY’ is derived from the greek word ‘psyche’ meaning ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘discour...

Introduction to Psychology What is Psychology?  Science of Human and Animal Behavior;  It includes the application of this science to human problems.  The word ‘PSYCHOLOGY’ is derived from the greek word ‘psyche’ meaning ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘discourse’ or ‘science’. So, the word Psychology means ‘Science of soul’ Various Definitions  Plato- Psychology is the  This fails to distinguish science of the psyche or between psychology and soul. metaphysics.  Aristotle- science of living  This lacks the characteristic organism. point of view and lays too much stress on biological side  Mediaeval Psychology- Science  The term mind is vague. of Mind. +The term is too wide as logic, ethics also are science of mind. *Positive Science deals with facts + The definition does not distinguish as they are, without evaluating psychology as *positive science them. Eg. Physics deals with from the above sciences which physical objects like heat, light are normative. etc Normative Science deals with facts from the standpoint of a norm or value. Eg. Ethics deals with how man should act, so that action may be right.  Descartes, James, Angell-  Consciousness covers only an science of consciousness. insignificant part of the mind leaving aside its major part which is below the conscious level. + By consciousness, James, Angell mean states and processes of mind like sensations and ideas.  Leibnitz- science of the  It ignores the unconscious. conscious and subconscious mind.  Wundt- science of individual  Such definitions are materialistic. experience. + His follower Titchener- science of experience dependent upon an experiencing person. For psychological purpose, the living body may be reduced to the nervous system and its attachments.  Prof. James Ward- Science  He does not explain how there of individual experience. can be a science of psychology with the self as its centre. + This definition gives + He avoids the psycho-physical importance experience of methods of psychological self investigation.  Modern Psychologists (David  It ignores self and fails to account Hume) - Science of mental for unity and continuity of mental processes. life.  Stout admits the self as a part of  Stout- Science of mental states psychological enquiry. and processes.  William McDougall-  It tends to be biological and vague. Positive science of the behaviour of living beings.  It ignores self  Woodworth- Science of + It overlooks the passivity of the activities of the feelings, which according to it is individual. an activity of the individual.  J.B.Watson- Science of  It reduces psychology to a natural Behaviour science. + By Behaviour he means - total + Banishes all reference to mind, response which an organism consciousness etc. makes to any situation with which it is faced.  Koffka, Gestalt Psychologist-  No criticisms were made for this. study of behaviour in its causal connections with psycho-physical field  Organismic Psychology- science  It seems to ignore the self as the of the specific interactions principle of unity underlying the between organisms and stimulus relation of the organism and objects stimulus objects.  Personalistic Psychology-  Mental processes are more Science of personal appropriate objects of consciousness. psychological study than ego- consciousness.  No cut and dried definition of Psychology is feasible because this young science has not yet out grown its formative years.  From all points of view, Stout’s definition of psychology as the science of mental states and processes seems to be acceptable.  The ancient roots of psychology can be traced back to civilizations such as ancient Egypt, Greece, and China, where philosophers and scholars contemplated questions about the human mind and behavior.  Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the groundwork for understanding the psyche, while ancient Chinese texts explored topics related to human nature and emotions. These early inquiries set the stage for the development of psychology as a formal discipline in later centuries. Ancient Philosophical Roots (500 BCE – 300 CE)  Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle pondered questions of human nature, consciousness, and perception. Their theories laid the groundwork for the study of psychology, exploring concepts such as cognition, emotions, and the relationship between mind and body.  Birth of Modern Psychology (Late 19th Century)  1879: Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, marking the beginning of experimental psychology.  1885: G. Stanley Hall establishes the first psychology research laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University.  1890: William James publishes “The Principles of Psychology,” which is considered one of the foundational texts of modern psychology. Schools of Thought (Early 20th Century)  1900s-1920s: Psychoanalysis developed by Sigmund Freud, focusing on the unconscious mind and the role of early childhood experiences.  1910s-1920s: Behaviorism led by John B. Watson and later B.F. Skinner, emphasizing observable behavior and conditioning.  1920s-1930s: Gestalt psychology, with Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, emphasizes the importance of holistic perception and experience. Cognitive Revolution and Humanistic Psychology (Mid 20th Century)  1950s-1960s: Cognitive psychology emerges, focusing on mental processes such as memory, problem-solving, and language.  1950s-1960s: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers pioneer humanistic psychology, emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience. Behavioral and Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (1960s-1970s)  1960s: Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), a precursor to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).  1970s: Aaron Beck developed Cognitive Therapy, which later evolves into CBT, a widely used therapeutic approach. Positive Psychology and Neuroscience ( 1980s-1990s)  1998: Martin Seligman introduces the concept of positive psychology, focusing on well-being, strengths, and positive emotions.  Late 20th century: Advances in neuroscience contribute to the understanding of brain functions and their relation to behavior and mental disorders. Technology and Contemporary Approaches (21st Century)  2000s: Rise of online therapy and digital interventions, expanding access to psychological support.  2010s: The field of neuropsychology continues to advance, revealing insights into brain-behavior relationships.  2020s: Increasing focus on cultural psychology, global mental health, and the integration of various psychological approaches.  Over the years, various schools of thought have emerged, each offering distinctive perspectives and contributing to the mosaic of psychological knowledge.  In psychology, the questions “Why?”, “What?”, and “How?” are foundational. They guide us to explore behaviors, observe details, and understand processes. This questioning approach is essential for uncovering insights into human nature and behavior.  As you begin your study of psychology, you’ll discover that “Why?” is more than a question. It’s a deliberate and strategic approach to thinking — an inquiring mindset. It represents a practice of curiosity, a keen interest in the world, and an acknowledgment of our right, perhaps even responsibility, to ask “why.”  This inquiring mindset is crucial for anyone aspiring to be a psychology professional; it drives us to look beyond the surface and uncover deeper meanings and motivations behind human actions and thoughts.  The question “What?” calls for our careful, detailed, and unbiased observation. It requires us to gather facts and see the world as it is, not as we assume it to be.  In psychology, this means observing behavior, emotions, thoughts, and interactions with an open mind.  The question, “How?” demands our exploration of the processes and mechanisms that explain all the phenomena that we can observe.  It compels us to delve into the underlying workings and understand the precursors (i.e., what must be present before anything can happen), the step-by- step sequence of events, and the cause and effect — not just as it appears on the surface but at every level.  Why  Why can’t we tickle ourselves?  Why do we yawn when we see someone else yawning?  Why do we enjoy watching scary movies?  Why do some people have a fear of clowns?  Why do we find it hard to resist kittens and puppies?  … Your turn. You have 2 minutes. Go!  If we grab our sides in an attempt to tickle ourselves, our brain anticipates this contact from the hands and prepares itself for it. By taking away the feeling of unease and panic, the body no longer responds the same as it would if someone else were to tickle us.  This is called “contagious yawning”. Contagious yawning feels automatic, like a reflex you don’t have to think about. But scientists know it’s not completely automatic because we are not born knowing how to do it.  According to this theory, horror movies let us vicariously explore the nature of evil, both in others and in ourselves. They also allow us to grapple with the darkest parts of humanity in a safe environment.  Clowns can be unpredictable, inscrutable and a little weird. Those are just a few of the reasons why some people develop coulrophobia, or fear of clowns.  Watching or interacting with cute animals releases feel-good hormones like dopamine and oxytocin in our brains, making us feel happy and content  What  What causes us to have a “favorite color”?  What causes “brain freeze” when we eat something cold too quickly? … Your turn. You have 2 minutes. Go!  One possible explanation is that we’ve evolved to prefer colors that our ancient ancestors associated with survival, safety and health. Among adults, bluish hues tend to be more popular than yellowish brown ones, which might be because blue is associated with water and clear skies, while yellows and browns convey illness, human waste, and decay.  This is due to rapid changes in blood vessel size, sending pain signals to the brain.  How  How can we suddenly remember a forgotten memory out of nowhere?  How does sleep deprivation affect exam grades?  How can certain scents change our mood?  How do we develop a”sense of direction” and navigate spaces? … Your turn. You have 2 minutes. Go!  With the right cue — seeing the right person, hearing the right music, or smelling the right odor — we can suddenly recall the entire memory.  The less a student sleeps every night, the lower their grade-point average will be.  When the olfactory system detects a scent, it sends signals to the limbic system, which then elicits an emotional response based on our past experiences and associations with that particular smell.  In many animals, humans included, an accurate sense of direction is generated with the help of brain cells known as head direction neurons, which do so by incorporating two main streams of information — visual landmarks and positional estimates based on self-movement. Without the former, our ability to navigate even familiar locations degrades.