Psychology Unit 1: Definition and History PDF

Sunday, December 8, 2024 9:50 PM Unit 1 Thursday, September 5, 2024 5:48 PM Section 1.1 1. Definition : ○ Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior ○ It explores questions about creativity, prejudice, discrimination, and consciousnes 2. Scientific me...

Sunday, December 8, 2024 9:50 PM Unit 1 Thursday, September 5, 2024 5:48 PM Section 1.1 1. Definition : ○ Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior ○ It explores questions about creativity, prejudice, discrimination, and consciousnes 2. Scientific method in psychology: ○ Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge ○ Process involves proposing hypotheses, conducting experiments, and testing theories ○ Focuses on measurable and observable phenomena 3. Nature of psychological science: ○ Empirical, based on measurable data ○ Deals with matter and energy, not values or morality ○ Limited in understanding the mind due to the nature of thoughts 4. Historical context: ○ Psychology became an independent academic discipline in the late 1800s ○ Previously considered part of philosophy 5. Interdisciplinary nature: ○ Incorporates aspects of natural sciences (e.g., biology) ○ Also considered a social science due to the influence of social interactions on ss  ○ Previously considered part of philosophy 5. Interdisciplinary nature: ○ Incorporates aspects of natural sciences (e.g., biology) ○ Also considered a social science due to the influence of social interactions on behavior 6. Reasons to study psychology: ○ Interest in helping others and self-understanding ○ Fulfills general education or program requirements ○ Popular major in U.S. colleges 7. Value of psychology education: ○ Develops critical thinking skills ○ Trains in scientific method ○ Improves communication skills ○ Enhances scientific literacy 8. Skills and knowledge gained: ○ Understanding complex factors shaping behavior ○ Appreciating the interaction of biology, environment, and experiences ○ Recognizing diversity across individuals and cultures Section 1.2 History of Psychology: Key Figures and Movements Section 1.2 History of Psychology: Key Figures and Movements 1. Early Founders Wilhelm Wundt Known as the "father of experimental psychology" Focused on studying conscious experience through introspection Introspection: a process by which someone examines their own conscious exper as objectively as possible Believed in voluntarism - the idea that people have free will Developed concept of internal perception for objective examination of consciou experiences William James Developed functionalism: studied how mental processes help organisms adapt t their environment Emphasized the importance of habit in human behavior Contributed to theories of emotion and pragmatism in philosophy 2. Structuralism Edward Titchener (student of Wundt) ○ Brought Wundt's ideas to the United States ○ Focused on identifying basic elements or "structures" of mental processes ○ Used introspection to break down mental processes into basic componen ○ Criticized for subjective nature of introspection method 3. Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis Key concepts: ○ Unconscious mind: repository of suppressed feelings and urges rience us to s nts Sigmund Freud Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis Key concepts: ○ Unconscious mind: repository of suppressed feelings and urges ○ Id, ego, and superego as components of personality ○ Importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality ○ Dream analysis as a way to access the unconscious Developed free association and talking cure techniques Influential but controversial; many ideas challenged by later research 4. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler ○ Focused on perception and how we organize sensory information ○ Key principle: "The whole is different from the sum of its parts" ○ Identified principles of perceptual organization (e.g., similarity, proximity, continuity) ○ Influenced modern cognitive psychology and problem-solving theories 5. Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning Famous experiment: conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell Demonstrated how reflexes could be conditioned through association John B. Watson Rejected introspection. and focused solely on observable behavior Emphasized the role of environment in shaping behavior "Little Albert study"? B.F. Skinner Developed theory of operant conditioning (how behavior is affected by consequ Invented the Skinner box for studying animal behavior Key concepts: reinforcement, punishment, shaping, and schedules of reinforcem Applied behavioral principles to education 6. Humanism What it is Perceptive within psychology that emphasizes potential for good th , uence) ment hat’s 6. Humanism What it is Perceptive within psychology that emphasizes potential for good th innate to all humans Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Developed hierarchy of needs theory ○ Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization Focused on human potential and self-actualization Studied characteristics of psychologically healthy individuals Contributed to positive psychology movement Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Developed client-centered (person-centered) therapy Key therapeutic concepts: ○ Unconditional positive regard ○ Empathy ○ Genuineness (congruence) Emphasized personal growth and self-actualization Influenced counseling psychology and psychotherapy practices 7. Cognitive Revolution (1950s) Noam Chomsky Critiqued Skinner's behaviorist approach to language acquisition Proposed innate language acquisition device (LAD) Influenced the shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology Other Key Figures George Miller: Work on short-term memory capacity ("The Magical Number Sev Plus or Minus Two") Ulric Neisser: Wrote first textbook on cognitive psychology (1967) Aaron Beck: Developed cognitive therapy for depression 9. Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology WEIRD stands for western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. Francis Cecil Sumner First African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the U.S Established psychology department at Howard University Researched racial bias in intelligence testing hat’s ven, WEIRD stands for western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. Francis Cecil Sumner First African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the U.S Established psychology department at Howard University Researched racial bias in intelligence testing George I. Sanchez Mexican American psychologist who challenged biased intelligence testing Advocated for bilingual education and equal educational opportunities Pointed out that the language and cultural barriers in testing were keeping child from equal opportunities Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark Conducted "doll studies" showing effects of segregation on African American ch Research was crucial evidence in Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ca 10. Women in Psychology Margaret Floy Washburn First woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894) Wrote influential book "The Animal Mind" (1908) Mary Whiton Calkins Completed PhD requirements at Harvard but denied degree due to gender Her memory research studied primacy and recency also wrote about how structuralism and functionalism both explained self-psych Mary Cover Jones Pioneer in behavior therapy Conducted "Little Peter" experiment, demonstrating how to eliminate fear in ch Martha Bernal First Latina to earn PhD in psychology in the U.S. (1962) Studied ethnic identity development in children Inez Beverly Prosser First African American woman to receive PhD in psychology dren hildren ase hology hildren  Section 1.3 Psychology Branches Biopsychology -Studies how biology influences behavior -focused on immediate cause of behavior -Focuses on nervous system's role in behavior -Combines psychology and physiology research -Key areas: sensory/motor systems, sleep, drug use, behavior, neurodevelopmen -Interdisciplinary approach (neuroscience) Evolutionary Psychology -Examines ultimate biological causes of behavior -Based on Darwin's theory of evolution -Assumes behaviors have genetic components -Predicts and tests behavioral outcomes using evolutionary theory -Challenges: proving natural selection, limited knowledge of ancestral conditions -Areas studied: memory, mate choice, relationships, social behavior 2. Sensation and Perception - Interdisciplinary study of sensory systems and psychological experiences of se information - Explores how we process various sensory inputs (sight, sound, touch, smell, te balance) - Emphasizes that perception is complex, it is influenced by attention, previous and cultural backgrounds - Example: The duck-rabbit illusion demonstrating how perception can vary wh nt s ensory emperature, s experiences, hile sensory information - Explores how we process various sensory inputs (sight, sound, touch, smell, te balance) - Emphasizes that perception is complex, it is influenced by attention, previous and cultural backgrounds - Example: The duck-rabbit illusion demonstrating how perception can vary wh information remains constant 3. Cognitive Psychology - Studies thoughts and mental processes & relationship to behavior - Broad scope: attention, problem-solving, language, memory - Often involves collaborations across people with disciplinary backgrounds, so cognitive science 4. Developmental Psychology - Studies changes across the lifespan in physical, cognitive, moral, and social ca - Early focus was on changes from childhood to adulthood (e.g., Piaget's work o permanence) - Growing interest in later-life development due to aging populations - Projects significant growth in the 65+ population in the United States 5. Personality Psychology - Focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique - Historical theories: Freud's psychosexual stages, Maslow's hierarchy, Allport's - Modern approach: identifying and measuring personality traits - Five Factor model (Big Five): Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extraversion - Traits shown to be relatively stable over lifespan and influenced by genetics 6. Social Psychology emperature, s experiences, hile sensory ometimes called apacities on object s contributions Openness, and  - Five Factor model (Big Five): Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extraversion - Traits shown to be relatively stable over lifespan and influenced by genetics 6. Social Psychology - Studies human interactions and relationships - Topics: differences in explaining own vs others' behaviors, prejudice, attractio interpersonal conflicts - Examines how being among others changes behavior and thinking - Notable study: Milgram's obedience experiment (1961) ○ Showed high compliance with authority even when seemingly causin others ○ Raised ethical concerns in psychological research 7. Industrial-Organizational Psychology - Applies psychological theories and principles in industrial and organizational s - Addresses personnel management, organizational structure, workplace envir - Aims to improve hiring decisions and create productive work environments - Involves both applied work & scientific research 8. Health Psychology - Uses biopsychosocial model (focuses on how health is affected by the interaction psychological, and sociocultural factors.) - Aims to improve health through public policy, education, intervention, and re - May study relationships between genetics, behavior patterns, relationships, p stress, and health - Focuses on motivating healthier behaviors 9. Sport and Exercise Psychology - Studies psychological aspects of sport and exercise performance - Covers motivation, performance anxiety, effects on mental and emotional we - Extends to physical exercise in general and performance under demanding co firefighting, military operations, surgery) 10. Clinical Psychology - Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problema patterns - Influenced by various theoretical approaches: - Psychoanalytic (Freud) - Humanistic (Rogers' client-centered therapy)  Openness, and on, ng harm to settings ronment of biological, esearch psychological ellbeing onditions (e.g., atic behavior  - Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problema patterns - Influenced by various theoretical approaches: - Psychoanalytic (Freud) - Humanistic (Rogers' client-centered therapy) - Behavioral and cognitive (behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive-b therapy) - Often confused with entire field of psychology due to media attention - Related field: Counseling psychology (focuses on emotionally healthy individu 11. Forensic Psychology - Applies psychology within the justice system - Roles include: - Assessing competency to stand trial - Evaluating defendants' state of mind - Consulting on child custody cases - Advising on sentencing and treatment - Providing expertise on eyewitness and children's testimony - Acts as expert witnesses in court cases - Assists in jury selection and witness preparation - May provide psychological treatment within criminal justice system - Includes criminal profiling Section 1.4 atic behavior behavioral uals)  Section 1.4 Educational Requirements Doctoral degree (PhD or PsyD) required for most specialties in 4-year institutions Master's degree sufficient for some areas PhD in Psychology Typically requires completing a dissertation Defended before expert reviewers Academic Careers Faculty positions involve teaching, research, and service Time allocation varies by institution Adjunct positions available, often requiring advanced degree but not always PhD Research Careers Some positions focus exclusively on research, especially at large universities Postdoctoral training programs common before full- time faculty positions Clinical Psychology PsyD (Doctor of Psychology) focuses more on clinical application Licensure required for clinical practice Postdoctoral supervised work often required Non-Academic Careers Varied options based on specialization (e.g., pharmaceutical industry, forensic psychology) Master's degree sufficient for some counseling and therapy roles Bachelor's degree can lead to careers in case management, sales, HR, teaching Healthcare and Other Fields Psychology background valuable in healthcare professions MCAT now includes psychological foundations of behavior Top Occupations for Psychology BA Graduates Healthcare and Other Fields Psychology background valuable in healthcare professions MCAT now includes psychological foundations of behavior Top Occupations for Psychology BA Graduates 1. Mid- and top-level management 2. Sales 3. Social work 4. Other management positions 5. Human resources I. Scientific Advances and World Progress 1. Scientific research as a major driver of progress: ○ Dramatic changes in the past century primarily due to scientific findings ○ Examples: modern medicine, electronics, automobiles, jets, birth control 2. Notable scientists who saved millions of lives: ○ Edward Jenner: § "Father of immunology" § Pioneered vaccinations, leading to smallpox eradication § His work led to vaccines for measles, pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus, typhoid, cholera, polio, hepatitis ○ Fritz Haber and Norman Borlaug: § Created the "Green Revolution" § Developed hybrid agricultural crops and synthetic fertilizer § Saved over a billion lives by increasing food production capabilities 3. Major changes in the past century due to science: ○ Transportation: from horseback to cars and jets ○ Communication: radios, televisions, mobile phones (75% of world population has access) ○ Medicine: antibiotics, artificial hearts, increased life expectancy (47 years in 1900 to 79 years in 2010) ○ Technology: refrigeration, electricity (84% of households) ○ Nutrition: substantial drop in global hunger and malnutrition ○ Education: Rise in average IQ levels due to better nutrition and schooling  years in 1900 to 79 years in 2010) ○ Technology: refrigeration, electricity (84% of households) ○ Nutrition: substantial drop in global hunger and malnutrition ○ Education: Rise in average IQ levels due to better nutrition and schooling II. What Is Science? 1. Definition: Use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge ○ Contrasts with ancient belief in magical or supernatural explanations 2. Key characteristics: a. Systematic observation: ○ Core of scientific method ○ Organized and controlled observations ○ Often involves measurement and recording ○ Systematic variation of conditions to understand phenomena b. Testable hypotheses: ○ Observations lead to hypotheses that can be tested ○ Example: comparing burning speeds of different types of candles c. Democratic process: ○ Open discussions and debates about observations and theories ○ Skepticism encouraged ○ Publication of competing findings to determine best data d. Cumulative knowledge: ○ Building on discoveries of earlier scientists ○ Each generation of scientists knows more than the previous III. Psychology as a Science 1. Challenges: ○ Many psychological phenomena not directly observable (e.g., depression, intelligence, prejudice) ○ Skepticism about psychology's scientific status 2. Early focus on behavior: ○ Used observable behavior to infer internal states ○ Example: observing friendly vs. shy behaviors to study personality 3. Pioneers: ○ Francis Galton: § Cousin of Charles Darwin § Developed self-report questionnaires § Conducted early studies on individual differences (e.g., color discrimination, distance judgment) § Pioneered twin studies to explore nature vs. nurture 4. Modern approaches (Measuring Happiness) ○ Multiple methods:  § Developed self-report questionnaires § Conducted early studies on individual differences (e.g., color discrimination, distance judgment) § Pioneered twin studies to explore nature vs. nurture 4. Modern approaches (Measuring Happiness) ○ Multiple methods: § Self-report measures § Peer report measures § Memory measures § Biological measures (e.g., cortisol samples, fMRI brain scans) ○ More sophisticated study designs and statistical analyses ○ Example of studying happiness: § Self-report scales § Peer reports from friends and family § Memory recall tasks § Biological markers (e.g., cortisol levels, left pre-frontal cortex activity) 5. Current state of psychological science: ○ Young science (about 150 years old) ○ Most major findings in the last 60 years ○ Ongoing development and refinement of methods IV. Usefulness of Psychological Science 1. Interventions for better living: ○ Research on therapy effectiveness ○ Example: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for depression and anxiety 2. Organizational psychology improvements: ○ Interventions for increased productivity and job satisfaction 3. Human factors engineering: ○ Improving product safety and utility ○ Example: Alphonse Chapanis's redesign of aircraft cockpit controls 4. Forensic applications: ○ Enhancing validity of courtroom decisions ○ Example: Elizabeth Loftus's research on eyewitness testimony and memory reliability 5. Ongoing research: ○ Demonstrable successes, but much more to be learned V. Ethics of Scientific Psychology 1. Special considerations for human participants: ○ Need to guard against potential psychological harm 2. Code of ethics for research: a. Informed consent: V. Ethics of Scientific Psychology 1. Special considerations for human participants: ○ Need to guard against potential psychological harm 2. Code of ethics for research: a. Informed consent: ○ Participants should know they're involved in research ○ Understanding of what will happen during the study ○ Free choice to participate b. Confidentiality: ○ Protection of participants' personal information c. Privacy: ○ No observations in private spaces without consent ○ No seeking confidential information without consent d. Benefits vs. risks assessment: ○ Weighing potential benefits against risks to participants ○ Exposure to risk only with full understanding and clear benefits e. Deception and debriefing: ○ Limited use of deception to prevent unnatural behavior modification ○ Mandatory debriefing to educate participants about the true nature of the study VI. Reasons to Learn About Scientific Psychology 1. Understand ourselves and others: ○ Gain insight into human behavior and mental processes 2. Influence others effectively: ○ Apply psychological principles in parenting, leadership, etc. 3. Help others and improve the world: ○ Use psychological knowledge in therapy, social work, etc. 4. Develop professional skills: ○ Prepare for careers in psychology and related fields 5. Evaluate research claims: ○ Develop critical thinking skills to assess psychological studies and findings 6. Personal interest and enjoyment: ○ Study psychology for its inherent fascination and intellectual challenge e  ○ Study psychology for its inherent fascination and intellectual challenge Psychology Research Methods Uri Geller phenomenon: 1970s: Convinced many he had psychic powers Appeared to bend spoons and slow watches with his mind Failed to replicate abilities under scientific scrutiny Science and observation: Science is based on systematic, intentional study of the natural world Observations form the foundation of scientific inquiry "Seeing is believing" is not enough; data is crucial Psychology as a science: Follows scientific principles Requires systematic study and data collection Scientific inquiry in psychology: Involves testing hypotheses (research questions) Multiple methods available for testing Choice of method depends on research questions and available resources All methods have limitations Best research uses a variety of methods Types of Research Designs 1. Experimental Research ○ Definition: Manipulates independent variable to observe effects on dependent variable ○ Key features: § Random assignment to conditions § Control groups § Double-blind procedures ○ Allows for causal inferences ○ Strength: High internal validity; can establish cause-effect relationships ○ Weakness: May lack ecological validity; artificial settings might not reflect real-world scenarios 2. Correlational Research ○ Definition: Passively observes relationships between variables without manipulation ○ Key features: s s  ○ Weakness: May lack ecological validity; artificial settings might not reflect real-world scenarios 2. Correlational Research ○ Definition: Passively observes relationships between variables without manipulation ○ Key features: § Measured using correlation coefficient (r) § Positive vs. negative correlations § Cannot determine causation ○ Strength: Can study variables that can't be manipulated experimentally; often has high external validity ○ Weakness: Cannot establish causal relationships; vulnerable to third-variable problem 3. Qualitative Designs a) Participant observation ○ Definition: Researcher embeds in a group to study its dynamics ○ Strength: Provides rich, detailed data about natural behaviors ○ Weakness: Time-consuming; potential for researcher bias b) Case studies ○ Definition: Intensive examination of specific individuals or contexts ○ Strength: Allows for in-depth analysis of unique or rare phenomena ○ Weakness: Limited generalizability; potential for subjective interpretation c) Narrative analysis ○ Definition: Study of stories and personal accounts ○ Strength: Captures subjective experiences and meanings ○ Weakness: Relies heavily on participants' recall and honesty; labor-intensive analysis 4. Quasi-Experimental Designs ○ Definition: Similar to experiments but without random assignment ○ Uses existing group memberships ○ Strength: Can study variables that can't be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons ○ Weakness: Causal inference is more difficult due to potential pre-existing group differences 5. Longitudinal Studies ○ Definition: Track same people over time (weeks, months, or years) ○ Strength: Can observe developmental trends and long-term effects s s  pre-existing group differences 5. Longitudinal Studies ○ Definition: Track same people over time (weeks, months, or years) ○ Strength: Can observe developmental trends and long-term effects ○ Weakness: Time-consuming and expensive; participant attrition can be a problem 6. Surveys ○ Definition: Gather information using questionnaires or internet ○ Strength: Can reach large numbers of participants at low cost; good for collecting self-report data ○ Weakness: Relies on self-report, which can be biased; may have low response rates Key Concepts 1. Variables ○ Independent variable: Manipulated by researcher ○ Dependent variable: Measured outcome ○ Importance: Clarify what is being manipulated and measured in a study 2. Random Assignment ○ Definition: Participants are randomly allocated to different conditions ○ Crucial for experiments ○ Ensures groups are equivalent on average ○ Importance: Helps control for confounding variables 3. Confounds ○ Definition: Factors that could undermine causal inferences ○ Examples: Placebo effect, participant demand (participant changed behavior to fit interpretation of experiments purpose), experimenter bias ○ Importance: Must be controlled to ensure valid results 4. Correlation Coefficient (r) ○ Measures strength and direction of relationship between two variables ○ Range: -1 to +1 ○ Strength: Absolute value of r (closer to 1 = stronger relationship) ○ Direction: Positive or negative ○ Importance: Quantifies the relationship between variables 5. Causation vs. Correlation ○ Correlation does not imply causation ○ Third variable problem: An unmeasured variable may be ; o